1. Theories of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
Created by Dr. Keya Mukherjee. Revised by Dr. Jeffra Flaitz

2. Opinions about Language Learning
Languages are learned mainly through imitation.
People with high IQs are good language learners.
Most of the mistakes ELLs make are due to interference from their native language.
Errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad habits.

3. Second Language Acquisition
What does it mean to know a language?
What does it mean to know a second language?
How are second languages learned? In what order? What helps, what doesn't help?
SLA is concerned with how people
learn a second language
and with how to provide teachers with a
psycholinguistic basis for teaching ELLs.

4. FIRST Language Acquisition
What do you know about how children learn their first (i.e. native) language?
What are the stages of first language acquisition ?
What is a child doing in each of these stages?
Important questions that have been investigated.

5. What we now know from research on children’s language development
Humans are born with Language Acquisition Device, a system that allows us to learn language
Children go through different language learning stages
babble at 6 mo
1-word utterances at 1 yr
2 word utterances at 1.5 yrs
word inflections at 3yrs
complex constructions around 5 years
mature speech around 10 yrs

6. What we now know from research on children’s language development
There is a Critical Period during language learning must occur. In other words, there is a correlation between age and eventual success at attainment of language.
Language ability does not seem to be correlated with intelligence.

7. Review of Kinds of Linguistic Knowledge
Phonology: knowing the sounds of the language
Morphology: knowing how to form words
Lexicon: the mental dictionary of words
Syntax: knowing about acceptable sentences
Semantics: knowing word meanings
Pragmatics: knowing how to use language in social context
COMPETENCE: knowledge about language rules
PERFORMANCE: ability to use language to communicate

8. How do we learn our native language?
Our biological and innate cognitive ability, that which Noam Chomsky called Language Acquisition Device (LAD), means that humans are specially wired for language, which is our unique human capability.
Native language competence develops from exposure to language. Children “pick up” the language spoken in their environment.
We are able to formulate the rules of a language without being explicitly taught.

9. Look at the following language sample
A speaker says: “I eated chicken yesterday.”
Who is likely to make this utterance?
A child learning their L1 (native language)? 
A beginning learner of an L2 (second language)? 
An L2 speaker for 35 years? 
2. The same speaker says: “I ate chicken yesterday.”
The past tense verb now looks like standard English.
Hold on! Now the same speaker says:
“I goed to visit grandma yesterday.”
-- Given this lack of consistency, what can you say about
the speaker’s acquisition of the past tense? 
What does the data suggest?
Has the person acquired the language?
Looks like s/he has --- It is the last sentence that give out that s/he hasn’t.
What does this language show? Error? Or development?
These language patterns show developmental phase of language learning.

10. Look at the following language sample
Hold on! Now the same speaker says:
“I goed to visit grandma yesterday.”
-- Given this lack of consistency, what can you say about
the speaker’s acquisition of the past tense? 
Those who understand the process of language acquisition recognize that the speaker has learned that most past tense verbs end in –ed (e.g. waited).
The speaker also seems to understand that some past tense verbs in English are irregular (e.g. ate).
It appears, however, that the speaker hasn’t yet figured out which verbs have irregular past tense forms.
What does the data suggest?
Has the person acquired the language?
Looks like s/he has --- It is the last sentence that give out that s/he hasn’t.
What does this language show? Error? Or development?
These language patterns show developmental phase of language learning.

11. Why is acquisition represented as a U-shape?
ate
ate
eated
ated

12. Why study these developmental patterns?
These developmental patterns are part of what is called INTERLANGUAGE
Interlanguage data reveal the different stages of acquisition
Interlanguage describes a learner’s language in its own right

13. Why Study about SLA? Linguistics:
Suggests that SLA is a component of the broader study of language, a unique human faculty  
Language Pedagogy
Designing effective teaching methodologies, assessing reasonable expectations
Language Policy
Bilingual education, language laws
So why should we study L2A. Why can’t we assume that we must learn our L2 the same way we learn our L1.
Researchers world wide have noticed phenomena that made them want to investigate L2A separately so that we may be able to understand, teach and work with L2 learners better than before.

14. Does SLA mimic First Language Acquisition?
YES
and No
They are more similar than dissimilar.

15. Findings in L1 vs. L2 Acquisition
L1 Acquisition development studies Brown (1973) and de Villiers and de Villiers (1973) found clear orders and sequences in the acquisition of grammatical morphemes by first language learners.
L2 Acquisition development studies
Dulay and Burt (1973), Bailey, Madden, & Krashen (1974), Larsen-Freeman (1976), and Pica (1983) also found clear orders and sequences in the acquisition of grammatical morphemes by second language learners.

16. Findings in L1 vs. L2 Acquisition
Research has demonstrated that children from different language backgrounds (e.g. Spanish or Chinese) learning English as a second language showed similar order of acquisition of word inflections as the order of acquisition manifested by their L1 peers.
HOWEVER, this finding could not be generalized to adult L2 acquisition of English. In other words, the developmental patterns of SLA among child-aged ELLs is different from those observed in adult-aged ELLs.
Brown (1973) ---L1 order of acquisition
Dulay and Burt (1974) --- L2 order of acquistion

17. Findings in L1 vs. L2 Acquisition
The NATIVE language has less of an impact on the order of acquisition than the nature of the TARGET language.
The natural order CANNOT be changed through instruction.
If you know the grammatical rule you MAY NOT be able to apply it.

18. Early L2 development is generally characterized by …
Silent period:
a period of time when the learner does not say anything and understands little
Formulaic speech:
speech is structured, learner produces formula-like utterance (e.g. That’s a …, I want …)
Structural and semantic simplification:
learner produces very simple sentences
These patterns are similar to that of L1 acquisition

19. Differences between L1 and L2 Acquisition
External factors:
social situation in which learning took place, input and interaction
Internal factors:
age, motivation, style, strategies, language transfer

20. L1 vs. L2 Acquisition Circumstances
FIRST LANGUAGE (L1)
SECOND LANGUAGE (L2)
Learned at home
Learned at school, work
Learned by infants and toddlers
All ages, oftentimes older
Learned in order to communicate with loved ones
Learned to communicate with loved ones, community, co-workers, or to succeed in US job market
Largely and unconscious process
Very conscious process, structured, learned not acquired, stressful, ongoing, use it or lose it, never becomes your L1
Not time pressure to learn
Pressure of a timeframe, social and academic
Must learn developmental concepts as well as language
Transfer developmental concepts to L2 for older learners

21. Some conclusions we can draw
There are many unanswered questions with regard to the similarities and differences between learning a second language and learning one’s first language.
The bottom line seems to be that SLA progresses in a systematic order that is similar to but not completely identical to the orders observed in first language acquisition.

22. Pause and Think…
The following is a sample of speech from an ELL whose native language is Spanish.
What observations can you make about this ELL’s interlanguage (silent, formulaic, L1 transfer, mistakes)?
1. Lookit, like that.
Lookit four cars. Hey look, dese.
Looky chicken.
Look two cars
Lookit gas.
Lookit four.
Hey look, lunch money.
Answer: formulaic speech…”look” or “looky” or “lookit” are placed at the beginning of sentences to bring into focus or attention the subject of the conversation.

23. Stages of Language Acquisition
Pre-production (Level 1)
“Silent Period”, 500 word receptive vocabulary
Early production (Level 2)
Limited comprehension, one or two-word responses, 1000 word receptive vocabulary
Speech Emergence (Level 3)
Good comprehension, errors in grammar, simple sentences, 3000 word receptive vocab.
Intermediate Fluency (Level 4)
Excellent comprehension, complex and varied sentence structure, words

24. What attempts have been made in the past to explain how humans learn a language?
A few prominent theories were espoused to explain the process of language acquisition. They came from:
B.F. Skinner: The Behaviorist Model
Noam Chomsky: The Innatist Model
Lev Vygotsky: The Interactionist Model
(or Socio-cultural Theory)

25. Historical Perspective Recent History on SLA Research
B.F. Skinner’s Behaviorism
In the 1950’s and 1960’s, the techniques of language teaching were based on a behaviorist view of language.
Language under this view is essentially a system of
habits; learning proceeds by producing a response to a stimulus and receiving either positive or negative
reinforcement.
Researchers have long debated on issues of how people acquire a second language and how best to teach a second language
B.F.Skinner on human learning processes:
A psychologist by training, Skinner (Harvard) was interested in human learning. In his theories of how humans learn, he advocated that we learn by responding to stimuli. When our responses receive positive reinforcement, we are more likely to learn. Errors in responses or errors in learning needed to be extinguished by negative reinforcement. He saw learning as learning-practicing-learning until the “learning habit” was formed. He saw the mind as a “black box,” sort of empty and waiting to be filled with content.
LANGUAGE LEARNING IS HABIT FORMATION.
His views about learning in general also applies to language learning. He believed that language learning was not necessarily a unique human attribute. It could be learned if the learner was exposed to stimuli, practiced a finite number of utterances and filled the “blank slate.” He also emphasized the appropriateness of an adequate learning environment which would promote this rote learning.

26. Behaviorist Theory
A psychologist by training, a Harvard researcher, and the chief proponent for the behaviorist model of learning, Skinner believed that …
language learning is not a unique process. All humans go through the same stages of language acquisition (cooing, babbling, one-word utterances etc).
language learning is habit formation and is shaped by conditioned behavior. Learning will take place based on the reinforcement received for the response.
there is no concern for the existence of any “underlying mental processes.”
a learner’s mind, according to Skinner, is a blank slate.

27. Behaviorism and Language Learning
Based on this view, language teaching was seen to involve a lot of pattern repetitions to instill proper habits in the learner.
For L2 learners, there was also the matter of “unlearning” certain interfering habits from the L1.

28. Problems with Behaviorist Thinking
Language isn’t a collection of habits (Chomsky).
L1 acquisition shows that …
children do not merely repeat what they have heard; they use language creatively.
children internalize rules by producing sentences during the different stages of language acquisition.

29. Innatist Theory
A linguist by training, MIT researcher, and chief proponent of the Innatist Theory of language acquisition, Chomsky believed that …
language learning is an innate biological ability in all humans; we have a predisposition to language learning thanks to our “language acquisition device” or LAD.
Language is learned through a complex process of rule generation, hypothesis testing and confirmation.
Our ability to create infinite sentences from a finite set of rules is given as primary evidence of the LAD.
Learners play an active role in their language development, even if the role seems effortless and
“un”conscious.

30. Interaction (Socio-cultural) Theory
Born in post-Czar Marxist Russia, Vygotsky was both a psychologist and linguist by training and believed that …
human cognitive development, including language development, is a result of social interaction; it is specifically related to the individual’s culture and is aimed at creating a shared knowledge of the culture.
Adult scaffolding of knowledge through speech helps the child internalize both language and cultural knowledge.
Social interaction during scaffolding helps the learner with full development in their zone of proximal development (ZPD).
Although children use language to learn and think, its
main purpose to them is social interaction.

31. How did these learning theories influence SLA theories and approaches?
Behaviorist Theory gave birth to approaches such as the Audiolingual Method (drill and practice)
Innatist Theory gave rise to Krashen’s Monitor Model (5 hypotheses)
Interactionist (Socio-cultural) Theory resulted in greater emphasis on the “tools of thinking,” practices such as cooperative learning, reciprocal teaching, and scaffolding, and consideration of the learner’s social and cultural experience.

32. Behaviorism Contrastive Analysis
Contrastive Analysis (CA) focused on comparing and contrasting languages to find areas of difference.
Learner errors were accounted for by looking at the differences between languages.
Differences were to be brought to the attention of the learner; similarities were to be subconsciously transferred from the L1.
Source of difficulty in learning an L2 was believed to be determined by the differences between the L1 and the L2.
During the time of behaviorism, around the 1940’s and 1960’s investigative undertakings to look at learners’ error led to systematic analysis of two languages to detect points of contrast as well as points of similarities. This was being done with the belief that knowing these points would facilitate language learning. One of the noted linguist of the times Charles Fries, said: "The most efficient materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner."(Fries, C.C. (1945) Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press). Another famous linguist of the times, Robert Lado echoed similar thoughts when he expressed the importance of contrastive analysis in language teaching material design:
“Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture - both productively when attempting to speak the language and to act in the culture and receptively  when attempting to grasp and understand the language and the culture as practised by natives.” (Lado 1957, in Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991) An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. New York: Longman.
Pgs )
Lado went on to say a more controversial position, however, when he claimed that "those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult" (Lado 1957:2). This conviction that linguistic differences could be used to predict learning difficulty produced the notion of the contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH): "Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result." (Larsen-Freeman & Long 1991: 53)
More recent research evidence began to shed light on the unacceptability that all learer errors were attributable to the first language. Many of the errors could not be explained by the contrastive analysis between languages. This led to an investigation into learners’ errors.

33. Problems with using the CA approach
In language learning, L2 learners use many of the same cognitive strategies as L1 learners do.
Many errors that L2 learners make cannot be traced to the influence of their L1.
“Transfer of habits” is not consistently found to be the source of learner errors.
CA cannot explain why a learner could easily produce an erroneous form, struggle with the form, and then produce a correct form.
The task of enumerating the “differences” between languages is not straightforward; hence it is hard to predict where the problems would arise.
Zobl (1980) study of French and English --- learning the placement of pronouns. In French, the object pronoun comes before the verb (Je les vois – I them see), but in English they come after the verb (I see them)
French learners of English --- never produced * I them see
English learners of French --- did produce *Je vois elle (I see her) instead of Je la vois (I her see)

34. Error Analysis: One of next steps in language pedagogy
Ultimately, looking at the differences between languages was not a viable approach for articulating language teaching pedagogy. Thus, the next step was to look at learner errors as opposed to mistakes.
Error  Mistake
Mistake: a random performance slip caused by fatigue, excitement, etc. It can be easily corrected.
Error: a systematic deviation from the rules made by learners who have not yet mastered the L2. Errors cannot be self-corrected. They reveal the learner’s underlying competence or hypotheses about rules.
The expectation is that learning the source of the error, would reveal more about interference and developmental patterns.
In the late 1960s Pit Corder began his investigation into learners’ errors. This was also the time when Behavioristic thinking was loosing its edge and rational approach to language learning was brought to the forefront. Corder wanted the applied linguistics community to examine and apply the ways of first language learning to sercon language learning processes. He says that “within this context the study of errors takes on a new importance and will I believe contribute to a verification or rejection of the new hypothesis." (in Richards 1974). Learner errors take on a new dimension in this view.
Corder goes on to say that in L1 acquisition we interpret child's 'incorrect' utterances as being evidence that he is in the process of acquiring language and that for those who attempt to describe his knowledge of the language at any point in its development, it is the 'errors' which provide the important evidence.(ibid.: 23) In second language acquisition, Corder proposed as a working hypothesis that some of the strategies adopted by the learner of a second language are substantially the same as those by which a first language is acquired. (It does not mean, however, the course or sequence of learning is the same in L1 and L2.) By classifying the errors that learners made, researchers could learn a great deal about the SLA process by inferring the strategies that second language learners were adopting. It is in this Corder's seminal paper that he adds to our thinking by discussing the function of errors for the learners themselves. For learners themselves, errors are 'indispensable,' since the making of errors can be regarded as a divice the learner uses in order to learn. (Selinker 1992: 150)
Selinker (1992) pointed out the two highly significant contributions that Corder made: "that the errors of a learner, whether adult or child, are (a) not random, but are in fact systematic, and are (b) not 'negative' or 'interfering' in any way with learning a TL but are, on the contrary, a necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypotheses. (ibid:151) Such contribution in Corder (1967) began to provide a framework for the study of adult learner lanugage. Along with the influence of studies in L1 acquisition and concepts provided by Contrastive Analysis (especially language transfer) and by the interlanguage hypothesis (e.g. fossilization, backsliding, langauge transfer, communication and learning strategies), this paper provided the impetus for many SLA empirical studies.
Errors are a systematic deviation made by learners who have not mastered the L2; they cannot be self corrected because it reflects the learner’s current stage of L2, reveals his/her hypothesis about language forms
Mistakes are random performance slips caused by fatigue, excitement etc and can be easily corrected.
Richards (1977) 3 kinds of errors: Interlingual (caused by L1 transfer), intralingual (originates from the structure of L2), and developmental (reveals learner hypotheses)

35. Error Analysis
Analyzing L2 learner errors showed that the majority of the them were not the result of L1 interference, but they were rather “internal” errors of the “interlanguage” of the learner.
Error Analysis (EA) showed that L2 learners have a grammatical system, “interlanguage”, which falls on a point along a continuum somewhere between zero proficiency and perfect proficiency.
This is a developing system and hence the question of stages of development is raised.

36. Problems with Error Analysis
Despite the popularity of error analysis as an approach to investigate and understand second language learning …
sole focus on learners’ errors denied access to the whole picture
many of the sources of learners’ errors could not be identified
the EA hypothesis could not account for all the areas in which the learner was having difficulty (e.g. avoiding certain structures)

37. Interlanguage (IL): another look at learners’ interim language
A learner’s interlanguage is the intermediate status of the learner’s system between the L1 and the L2
Interlanguage data shows evidence that the process of L2 development is systematic and rule governed
Evidence of systematic stages of IL development is seen in the acquisition of interrogatives, negation, word order, and other aspects of syntax.

38. Interlanguage Development
Stages of Negation
Stage 1: No + X
ex: no book; no is happy; no you pay it
Stage 2: No/Don’t + verb
ex: I don’t like LA; I don’t swim; I don’t can play good;
He don’t like job.
Stage 3: Auxiliary + negation
ex: I can’t play; It wasn’t big
Stage 4: Unanalyzed “don’t” and auxiliary + negative
ex: I don’t like apples; I can’t play; She doesn’t drink
alcohol; They weren’t at home

39. Interlanguage Development
Acquisition of Questions
Stage 1: WH + declarative order
ex: What you want, what you eat, where we go
Stage 2: Stage 1 utterances continue; “be” is inverted; few examples of other verb inversions
ex: where is mine’s, where is John’s, what say they
Stage 3: “Be” is correctly used; auxiliary “do” emerges in WH questions; “do” also appears correctly in “Y/N” answers; double marking of tenses
ex: where did he found it; where’s this one belongs

40. Interlanguage Activity #1
What can you conclude about the interlanguage of the ELL (native language is Spanish) whose data is shown below? In particular, how does this speaker produce English negatives? At which stage (of negation acquisition) is the learner? How did you arrive at this conclusion?
1. No write. 2. No like it. 3. I no like American food. 4. No money. 5. My brother no go to school yet. 6. This may be no good for you. 7. I don’t know English. 8. No in house now. 9. I don’t know word.
Answer: Stage 2. The learner has moved on to use the “don’t” construction, but it is sill being used as a chunk, instead of the use of “do” as the auxiliary support for the negative marker.

41. Interlanguage Activity #2
Examine the following sample of spontaneous speech by a Japanese child, age 5-6 years old. What observations can you make about his development of question formation in English?
Month 1
Month 2
Do you know? How do you do it? Do you have milk? Do you want this one?
What do you doing, this boy? What do you do it, this froggie? What do you doing? What do want it?
Answer: Stage 3 of language acquisition of question formation.
"do” emerges in WH questions, is used correctly in “Y/N” answers and tenses are double marked.

42. Implications of Error Analysis for Teachers
Look at learners’ errors carefully
Don’t be misled by constructions in stage 2
Pay attention to fossilization (pause in learning)
Work with students’ errors
Discuss, analyze, categorize
Don’t overcorrect
Encourage “self-correction”
Be sensitive – don’t embarrass
Model correct answers
Don’t ignore errors
Motivate and encourage success
Create an atmosphere that will encourage students to produce in the L2.

43. Stephen Krashen’s Monitor Model
A linguist from the MIT tradition, Krashen’s theory of SLA, popularly known as the Monitor Model, is based on the following 5 premises:
Language acquisition and language learning are two distinctively different processes.
In SLA, as with first language acquisition, there is a natural order in the acquisition of grammatical morphemes; however, the order does not need to be the basis of language instruction.
In order for SLA to take place, the input the learner receives must be made comprehensible through the use of communicative methodology.

44. Stephen Krashen’s Monitor Model
Along with comprehensibility, when the input is slightly above the current level of the learner’s competence, then the learner’s is more likely to learn in this Zone of Proximal Development.
Learners also use a conscious system of rules, also known as the monitor to guide their language learning and production; however, use of the monitor depends on the amount of time available, the amount of knowledge amassed, and the learner’s desire to use the rules.

45. Krashen’s 5 Hypotheses The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
The Monitor Hypothesis
The Natural Order Hypothesis
The Input Hypothesis
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
One of the more recent developments in second language acquisition research.

46. Krashen's Five Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1:
Acquisition versus learning refers to language acquisition as the subconscious internalizing of implicit rules, whereas learning refers to the conscious process that results in knowing about the language
Hypothesis 2:
Our brains “monitor” our use of rules during language production. An overactive monitor inhibits language production whereas an underactive monitor causes the learner to produce language in an haphazard way. The monitor can only be optimally used when the learner has time and is conscious of the rules.

47. Krashen's Five Hypotheses
Hypothesis 3:
Grammatical morphemes are acquired in a fixed order; hence, explicitly teaching grammar has little impact. Learners will acquire the forms when they are “psycho-linguistically ready.”
Hypothesis 4:
Provision of comprehensible input speeds up language learning.
Hypothesis 5:
The learner’s “affect” (feelings) can interfere with effective language learning; hence, s/he needs to be made to feel comfortable and confident.

48. Highlights from Krashen's Monitor Model
The Role of Input:
Must be modified and adjusted
Must use “foreigner talk” (slowed down, simplified)
Must be comprehensible
Must be one step beyond current competence (i+1)
Acquisition Rich Environment
Meaningful interaction rather than drills
Exposure rather than instruction
Communicative tasks
Negotiation of meaning

49. Implications of Interactionist (Socio-cultural) Theory for Teaching
Research Findings
Classroom interaction and opportunities for participation with peers give learners a chance to evolve and enjoy social as well as learning success.
Peer groups and collaborative learning play a very important role in facilitating cultural learning, competent pragmatic use of language, as well as constructing knowledge.
Guidance and collaboration allow the learner to grow within his/her Zone of Proximal Development.

50. the student’s culture is validated and acknowledged.
Research Findings
Learners benefit from extrinsic learning rewards as well as from the intrinsic reward of having learned something.
Second language learners benefit from integrating into the school community as well as the larger social context.
There is a positive impact on the process of second language learning when …
the learning context is enriched through opportunities to learn both language and culture via social interaction
the students’ worldview and background are positively exploited for the benefit of others
the student’s culture is validated and acknowledged.

51. Other Findings from SLA Research
Interaction and instruction have positive effects on second language learning (rate, ultimate level of attainment) – Michael Long
Awareness of language learning strategies helps the learner learn the second language – Rebecca Oxford
There are two levels of language that must be acquired: Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) – Jim Cummins
Students must receive explicit language instruction
Learner differences account for differences in second language learning

52. Summary of Language Acquisition
The child learns language by unconsciously generating rules, perhaps to fill and innate blueprint (Chomsky).
Errors often indicate that learning is taking place.
The child learns language in meaningful, supportive, and communicative settings.
The child understands more than he can say.
The child will require a lot of time to become fluent.

53. Name That Hypothesis
All children with normal hearing and articulatory mechanisms acquire their first language
Hypothesis:
By whom?

54. Name That Hypothesis Attempting to communicate enables acquisition.
Learners learn by doing.
Learners need to be pushed to go beyond what they can currently do.
Hypothesis:
By whom?

55. Opinions about Language Learning REVIEW
Languages are learned mainly through imitation
False
If it were true, how can the following utterance be explained? “I goed to school”
People with high IQs are good language learners.
True: They are good at learning about the language
False: They are not good at acquiring the language for communicative purposes.

56. Opinions about Language Learning REVIEW
Most of the mistakes made by second language learners are due to interference from their first (native0 language.
True: for pronunciation and some other features (false friends, word order)
False: Speakers of a variety of different native languages make many of the same errors.

57. Opinions about Language Learning REVIEW
Errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad habits.
False: Can negatively affect self-esteem and motivation
False: Impossible to correct every single mistake
False: Errors are a natural part of language development
False: Errors help students “to notice the gap” between their current understanding and where they need to make adjustments