1. International Document Summer School, Tromsø, 2005 Documents and Media Convergence. Michael Buckland, University of California, Berkeley buckland@sims.berkeley.edu July 1, 2005

2. “Media convergence” is a myth -- an influential belief. Motives: 1. Curiosity: What could “media convergence” mean? Can media convergence be measured? 2. Practical difficulties in cross-media retrieval, e.g. retrieving texts and socio-economic statistical data on the same topic. Maybe “Convergence” means increased interoperability. Can documents become more convergent? – or less? -- How? “ Maybe document divergence is a good thing!” N. W. Lund, RTP-Doc videoconference, 17 May 2005.

3. Terminology There are different definitions for “document”, “documentation,” “genre,” “media type,” etc. Using these terms is part of the method, not the purpose (objective). The purpose is to understand the phenomena of interest and their context. Terminology is subordinate to that objective.

4. Digital media types, MIME, XML, … e.g. Type: Image; Subtypes: TIF, GIF, JPEG, etc. Converting from one type to another is more or less difficult. More generally… 2 or more = “Multimedia” Image - Picture, diagram.Sound, incl. music. - Text, numbers.3-Dimensional Object (=“Realia”). - Moving image. - Sculpture, globe, models. Executable program. - Museum objects, specimens. - Educational toys. Feel (Tactile): e.g. Braille. Taste.Smell.

5. Economies of scale: when producing more copies of the same product is economical. Economies of scope: when producing different products is economical. Here convergence is advantageous. TechnologyEcon. of scaleEcon. of scope ManuscriptLowLow PrintingHighLow PhotographyMediumMedium DigitalHighHigh

6. Phenomenological aspect: Documents are objects perceived as signifying something. The status of being a “document” is not inherent but attributed (given to) an object. Meanings are always constructed by observers. 1. Cultural codes: All forms of expression depend on some some shared understandings, language in a broad sense. Convergence here is cultural convergence or interpretation. 2. Media Types: Different type of expression have evolved: Texts, images, numbers, diagrams, art … 3. Physical Media: Paper; film; analog magnetic tape; bits;…. Anything perceived as a DOCUMENT (=1) has cultural (2), type (3), and physical (4) aspects. Being digital affects directly only aspect 4. Character Status

7. Descriptive metadata constitute an “intermediate infrastructure” to compensate for lack of convergence. So document convergence comes INDIRECTLY through an infrastructure of DOCUMENTATION (e.g. Topic list; gazetteer; time period directory; biographical dictionary; etc.) or comparable algorithmic infrastructure. Suggestion: Bibliographic access depended on stable points of reference. Traditionally, perfected for published printed books: Author, title, publisher, place and date of publication. But these points are unstable / unclear with “new media.” So new / different / more general and stable points of reference are needed.

8. Convergence means, in effect, interoperability. 1. Cultural codes: All forms of expression depend on some some shared understandings, language in a broad sense. Convergence here is cultural convergence or interpretation. In general, convergence / compatibility is necessary for comprehension, but limited divergence for rhetoric effect. 2. Media Types: Different type of expression have evolved: Texts, images, numbers, diagrams, art … 3. Physical Media: Paper; film; analog magnetic tape; bits;….

9. “Genre.” Specific combinations of 1, 2 & 3 that are used by tradition, by social convention. Historically and culturally situated. Rejecting genre conventions reduces social acceptability. 1. Cultural codes: All forms of expression depend on some some shared understandings, language in a broad sense. Convergence here is cultural convergence or interpretation. 2. Media Types: Different type of expression have evolved: Texts, images, numbers, diagrams, art … 3. Physical Media: Paper; film; analog magnetic tape; bits;….

10. Physical Media Media Types Cultural codes VU LU SU! { { I thank: Marc Davis, Ron Day, Niels W. Lund, and others for helpful discussions, and the support of the Institute for Museum & Library Services.