1. Genetics of Reproduction Notes

2. The Genetics of Reproduction Organisms can either reproduce asexually or sexually –Asexual reproduction = 1 parent Since there is only 1 parent, the offspring is genetically identical to the parent (no new DNA combinations) –Sexual reproduction = 2 parents “Males” produce sex cells called sperm –Half of the “father’s” DNA is in this sperm “Females” produce sex cells called eggs –Half of the “mother’s” DNA is in this egg Eggs and sperm combine in an event called fertilization which creates the new offspring organism –The offspring is gets half its DNA from its “mother” and half from its “father” –This results in offspring that are genetically similar to the parents, but not identical (new DNA combination)

3. DNA in a normal cell In a normal cell, humans will have 46 chromosomes –Chromosomes are long, continuous strands of DNA that contain both genes and introns –This number is different for organisms that belong to different species 23 of those chromosomes came from the mother’s egg –1 of each numbered chromosome and 1 sex chromosome 23 of those chromosomes came from the father’s sperm –1 of each numbered chromosome and 1 sex chromosome These pictures are called karyotypes and are used for finding problems with the number or shape of chromosomes and for determining sex.

4. Making sperm and egg The process of making sperm or egg cells is called meiosis Which copy of each numbered chromosome and the sex chromosome goes into each egg or sperm during meiosis is random –For example: your father could give the chromosome number 7 he got from his mother or the chromosome number 7 he got from his father Whichever chromosome gets donated, you get all the versions of the genes (alleles) on that chromosome

5. Sorting it out… You get 2 copies of each chromosome –1 from mom and 1 from dad Each chromosome has genes on it There are 2 basic types of genes –Dominant = makes a working protein –Recessive = makes a non-working protein This means there are 3 basic combinations of genes you could get from your parents for each trait –Both dominant This is called homozygous dominant –One dominant & one recessive This is called heterozygous –Both recessive This is called homozygous recessive

6. Genotypes and Phenotypes The combination of genes you get from the chromosomes your parents give you is called your genotype –Dominant genes are written as capital letters Different letters are used to represent different genes Usually the first letter of the dominant trait is used (not always) –Recessive genes are written as lower case letters –Example: for the height of a pea plant, T = dominant gene, which makes a protein that makes plants tall t = recessive gene, which makes a protein that makes plants short TT = homozygous dominant genotype Tt = heterozygous genotype tt = homozygous recessive genotype The actual traits you get are called your phenotype –Tall plant = dominant phenotype –Short plant = recessive phenotype

7. Using genotypes to figure out phenotypes If an organism is homozygous dominant: –They got 2 copies of the dominant gene –They make 2 working proteins –They get the dominant phenotype –Example: TT = tall plant If an organism is heterozygous: –They got 1 copy of the dominant gene and 1 copy of the recessive gene –They make 1 working protein and 1 non- working protein –They get the dominant phenotype –Example: Tt = tall plant If an organism is homozygous recessive: –They got 2 copies of the recessive gene –They make 2 non-working proteins –They get the recessive phenotype –Example: tt = short plant

8. Pedigrees Divorces are indicated by putting a diagonal slash through the horizontal line between a husband and wife A dead person is indicated putting a diagonal slash through the circle or square Diamond shapes are used if the person’s gender is not known Carriers will not always be marked. Sometimes a fully colored in symbol will actually be a carrier.

9. Tracking traits on pedigrees R = dominant gene = can roll tongue r = recessive gene = cannot roll tongue Possible genotypes & phenotypes: RR = homozygous dominant = can roll tongue Rr = heterozygous = can roll tongue rr = homozygous recessive = cannot roll tongue TIPS: Fill in the known genotypes first. Look at the kids to figure out what the parents might be for the unknowns.

10. Mendel’s Experiments Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk whose experiments with pea plants helped us understand how traits are inherited He crossed purebred plants with similar and different traits to see what traits the offspring received –We now know that purebred means homozygous (carrier means heterozygous) –Mendel did not know anything about DNA, genes or genotypes when he was doing his work He then crossed the offspring with each other to see what traits they would pass on –Plant brothers and sisters are allowed to make offspring In the bottom row of crosses, the short trait “skipped a generation”. This is caused by recessive genes.

11. Punnett Squares To figure out what traits the offspring will get, we have to account for all the possible combinations of sperm and egg that could fertilize each other –We can do this with a tool called a Punnett Square –Punnett Squares do NOT show you exactly what will happen They show the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring They can show what genotypes and phenotypes are not possible in the offspring They can tell you the probability of each of genotype and phenotype happening

12. Steps for filling in Punnett Squares 1.Figure out what letter is being used to represent the gene (see chart from earlier in notes) 2.Figure out what the dominant trait is and what the recessive trait is 3.Figure out the parent genotypes 4.Draw the Punnett Square 5.Fill in the parent genotypes 6.Fill in the possible offspring genotypes 7.Answer the question being asked Let’s cross a pea plant heterozygous for its yellow peas with a plant homozygous recessive for its green peas

13. Probability Probability is the likelihood, odds, or chance of an event happening –This can be represented as a fraction, decimal, or a percent In order to calculate the probability of a certain type of offspring happening from a set of parents: –Count the number of offspring that have the genotype or phenotype you’re looking for Put this number in the top (numerator) of a fraction –Count the number of total offspring in the Punnett square Put this number in the bottom (denominator) of a fraction To figure out the probability of multiple events happening, multiply their probabilities together

14. Explaining Mendel’s Results Let’s cross the purebred tall plant with the purebred short plant Results = ______________ Let’s cross the offspring from the first Punnett square with each other Results = ______________

15. Polygenic Traits Polygenic traits are characteristics of organisms that are controlled by more than one gene –This term is also (sometimes) applied to genetics problems where people are studying more than one trait at a time We can still use Punnett Squares to see how these might be passed on –There are 2 methods: One method is a little longer, but the math is easier The other method is faster, but requires more math Let’s solve the same problem both ways and see which you prefer: –What is the probability of getting a plant with purple, terminal flowers from a cross between two parents that are both heterozygous for their purple, axial flowers?

16. More boxes, less math method 1.Figure out what letter is being used to represent the gene 2.Figure out what the dominant trait is and what the recessive trait is 3.Figure out the parent genotypes 4.Draw the Punnett Square 5.Fill in the parent genotypes 6.Fill in the possible offspring genotypes 7.Answer the question being asked What is the probability of getting a plant with purple, terminal flowers from a cross between two parents that are both heterozygous for their purple, axial flowers?

17. Fewer boxes, more math method 1.Figure out what letter is being used to represent the gene 2.Figure out what the dominant trait is and what the recessive trait is 3.Figure out the parent genotypes 4.Draw the Punnett Square 5.Fill in the parent genotypes 6.Fill in the possible offspring genotypes 7.Answer the question being asked What is the probability of getting a plant with purple, terminal flowers from a cross between two parents that are both heterozygous for their purple, axial flowers?