1. Basics of Neuroscience
James J. Messina, Ph.D.

3. Structures of the Brain
Facts about human brain
weighs about 3 pounds or about 2% of the body’s weight
Contains 1.1 trillion cells, including 100 billion neurons
Neurons on the average have 5000 connections called synapse from other neurons (Linden, 2007)
Brain uses 20-25% of the body’s oxygen and glucose even though it is only 2% of the body’s weight (Lammert, 2008).
Brain is always working and performing its functions
Brain uses the same amount of energy
when the body is asleep or when awake it is hard at work thinking (Raichle & Gusnard, 2002).

4. The Brain and the Mind
The brain interacts with the other systems in the body, which interacts with people and the world around it
The brain is shaped by the mind.
In reality the mind is a creation of the brain, the body, the natural world and the human culture and the mind itself (Thompson and Varela, 2001).
So it is a simplification to say that the Brain is the primary influence on or the basis of the human mind.

5. The Three Human Brains
Aggressive Brain: which lies in the primitive portion of the brain
Emotional Brain: which entails the Limbic system
Analytical Brain: which involves these components of the brain:
The brain reaches its maximum number of synaptic connections and its greatest metabolic activity around the age of 3 or 4.

7. Primary Components of Human Brain (Part 1)
The Cerebral Cortex (Described in next slides)
Anterior (frontal) Cingulate Cortex (ACC) – Steadies attention and monitors plans. It helps to integrate thinking and feeling (Yamasaki, LaBar, and McCarthy, 2002). A cingulate is a curved bundle of nerve fibers
Insula – Senses the internal state of the body, including those “gut feelings” which people experience. It helps a person to become empathic. It is located inside the temporal lobes on each side of the brain
Thalamus – Major relay station for sensory information. It relays sensory information from the outside world directly to the amygdala to identify the importance of the stimuli

8. Primary Components of Human Brain (Part 2)
Brain Stem – Sends neuromodulators such as serotonin and dopamine to the rest of the brain
Corpus Callosum – Nerve bundle which passes information between the two brain hemispheres - vital for integrated thoughts, feeling and action
The Pons – (bridge) Connection between the lower brain and the mid-brain. It affects physical arousal, including blood pressure and responsible for heightened physical arousal in anxiety. Nuclei within the pons are important in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.
Cerebellum - Regulates body movement and responsible for body and limb position, relating to balance, posture, walking etc. Integrates information. It is assumed that the Cerebellum plays an important role in dreaming, memory, and other functions.

10. The Cerebral Cortex The motor cortex – mediates motor activity
The premotor cortex - plans complex motor activity
Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) – Makes meaning of sensory input.
The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) - Controls working memory
The anterior cingulate gyrus (ACG) – Connects directly limbic system

11. Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)
Makes meaning of sensory input
Sets goals, makes plans, directs actions, and shapes emotions
Processes information, maintains conscious attention, and forms behavioral responses
Guides and sometimes inhibits the limbic system
Conducts executive reasoning and is critical for sequencing behavior
Handles working memory

12. Prefrontal Cortex’s Components
1. The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) –
Controls working memory
Consolidates long term memory
Compares information with other data coming to it from other information centers of the brain
2. The anterior cingulate gyrus (ACG)
Connects directly to the structures of the limbic system
Filters and amplifies information from lower regions to and from the prefrontal cortex

13. Limbic System Limbic System
central to emotion and motivation and memory
includes cortical as well as subcortical structures
consists of the structures that ring the upper part of the brainstem
Basal Ganglia – Involved with rewards, stimulation seeking and movement. “Ganglia” are masses of tissues
Cingulate gyrus – allows shifting of attention, cognitive flexibility, adaptability, and helps the mind move from idea to idea
Hippocampus – Forms new memories and idetects threats.
Amygdala - Functions as the “alarm bell” for the brain that responds to emotionally charged or negative stimuli (Rasia-Filho, Londero & Archaval, 2000)
Hypothalamus - Regulates primal drives such as hunger and sex & activates the pituitary glands
Pituitary gland – it makes endorphins and triggers hormones.

14. The Limbic System

15. The Lobes of the Brain

16. Left Hemisphere of Brain
Organizes information, understands sequences & comprehends time in conjunction with activities or events, putting events in sequential order & placing them in time
where verbal work & making meaning of experience occurs
Forms symbols (language and math) for experience
Creates explanations for experience
Inhibits activity of right hemisphere which deals with emotions
Moderates emotional information which goes into right side of brain
Mediates memory, nonverbal, emotional responsiveness of right-side brain functions

17. Right Hemisphere of Brain
Responsible for recognizing faces, reading emotions, assessing emotional significance of event in conjunction with data from senses which it interprets
Specialized for nonverbal recognition & emotional memory - vital for quick & accurate response to world in which human lives
Strong role in creativity & nonverbal problem solving
Creates novel responses to both practical & emotional situations
Comprehends spatial relationships
Alert for & creates cadence & rhythm in speech, movement, music
Regulates nervous system & hormonal response coming in from senses.

20. Role of Brain Hemispheres
Left side of brain controls right side of body & right side of brain controls left side of body
Previous slide demonstrates: left eye's image is translated on right side of brain & right eye's image is translated on left side of brain
Image which person perceives comes after a process in brain in which left & right side images are translated or decoded by left & right side of brain & then made sense for observer
Any sight, thought, sound, smell, touch, or taste a person has is simply a series of biochemical electrical impulses which are sent out by senses to brain
This is physiological process by which all senses & thinking are impacted

21. Cause of Faulty Perceptions
If human has faulty perceptions it can impact the way human thinks, feels and acts
As a result of faulty perceptions which come from obscuring translation of faulty perception can impair problem solving, decision making & conflict resolution
Brain take time to sort out what senses are sending it

22. The Evolving Brain
Inside brain are three levels of development of brain
Reptilian - Brain stem is “reptilian brain” from which rest of brain has evolved is simplistic, concrete, fast, and motivationally intense
Paleomammalian – Limbic System
Neomammalian - Cortical tissues relatively recent, complex, conceptualizing, slow & motivationally diffuse sit atop subcortical & brain stem structures

25. Evolving Brain Impact
Modern cortex of brain has great influence over rest of brain
It’s been shaped by evolutionary pressures to develop ever improving abilities to parent, bond, communicate, cooperate love (Dimbar & Shultz, 2007).
Cortex is divided into two “hemispheres” connected by corpus callosum
In evolution of brain left hemisphere came to focus on sequential and linguistic processing & right hemisphere focused on holistic & visual-spatial processing
Two hemispheres work closely together & it is often hard to differentiate their different functions as brain operates
Many neural structures in evolving brain were duplicated so that there is one in each hemisphere
Usual way of talking about components of brain is to refer to structure as a single entity e.g. cerebellum

26. So How Does the Brain Work?
Brain Pathway:
Power line which connects two brain regions
Made up of interconnected neurons along which signals are transmitted from one brain region to another
Neurons
Brain has over 100 billion neurons
Neurons on average have 5000 connections called synapse from other neurons (Linden, 2007)
Bio-chemical electrical impulses create a cascade of effects based on messages sent to various organ receptors of body
Neurons process information by receiving, integrating & transmitting information.

27. Components of Neurons Cell body – sends out dendrites
Axon – when a neuron fires an electrochemical wave ripples down from its axon which is fiber which extends toward other neurons it is sending signals to
Dendrites - are spikes from neuron which receive neurotransmitters from other neurons
Myelin – fatty substance that insulates axons
Terminal Buton which faces synapse

30. Components of Neuron Synapse
1. Terminal Buton:
End of a neuron which contains neurotransmitters
Referred to as presynaptic
2. Receptors:
On end of receiving neuron referred as postsynaptic
Through which neurotransmitters are transmitted

33. Neurochemicals Major chemical inside brain that affect neural activity
These chemicals have different functions.

35. Neurotransmitters
All neurotransmitters affect functions throughout body
Brain is made up of billions of brain cells called Neurons
Neurons transmit information by means of electrical conduction within nerve cells and between nerve cells
Message once carried through body cell (Axon) crosses space called Synapse to new receiving cell
Tip of neuron axon-tiny sacs contain neurotransmitter chemicals which are automatically released by sending nerve cell
Neurotransmitter chemicals excite receiving cell causing cell to fire to send message through its own body-Axon to next receiving cell
Once message received neurotransmitter is deactivated & taken up from synapse and stored in sacs so as not to cause repeated firing of receiving cell.

37. Neurotransmitters (1)
Primary Neurotransmitters associated with emotional balance, sleep patterns & anxiety
Glutomate: excites receiving neurons
GABA -Gamma amino-butryic acid: inhibits receiving neurons

39. Neurotransmitters (2) Neuromodulators
Serotonin: regulates states of consciousness, mood and anxiety, it also regulates sleep & digestion & affects appetite, sleep & sexual behavior. Most antidepressants aim at increasing its effect
Dopamine: influences emotional behavior & cognition, regulates motor activity & regulates endocrine activity. It is also involved in rewards & attention. It promotes “approach” behaviors for individuals who face stressors
Norepinephrine: Its function is to alert & arouse. It regulates alertness, anxiety & tension & is secreted by adrenal glands in response to stress or arousal
Acetylcholine: promotes wakefulness & learning

41. Neurotransmitters (3)
Neuropeptides – are built from peptides which is a kind of organic molecule
Opiods – buffer stress, provide soothing & reduce pain, & produce pleasure - these include the endorphines
Oxytocin – promote nurturing behaviors toward children & bonding in couples. Associated with blissful closeness & love. Women typically have more oxytocin than men.
Vasopressin – supports pair bonding & in men it may promote aggressiveness towards sexual rivals

44. Other Neurochemicals
Cortisol – released by adrenal glands during stress response. It stimulates amygdala & inhibits hippocampus
Estrogen – brains of both men & women contain estrogen receptors which affects libido, mood & memory

45. The Nervous System
Responsible for sensing & reacting to environment & coordinating bodily functions of its organ components
Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS).

47. Peripheral Nervous System
Affects heart & muscles & directs communications between skin & brain
Skin is vital for receiving data about external environment & safety of body
Changes in pressure, temperature & other environmental factors cause both conscious & automatic adjustments to environment.
Norepinephrine activates PNS which then activates heart, muscles & extremities
As norepinephrine increases so does heart rate & blood pressure & anxious symptoms such as sweating, flushing & trembling

49. Autonomic Nervous System
The ANS enervates & controls action of all internal organs. It consists of three parts:
Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) which is responsible for arousal of brain & body. It is important in creating physical responses of arousal under stress & trauma
Parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) which inhibits arousal. It restores balance to internal organs & stress response systems
Diffuse enteric nervous system which controls digestion & peristaltic action

52. Nutritional Care of Brain
There are some basic rules of eating to follow to keep the brain healthy
Eat a well balanced diet on a daily basis – lots of proteins & lots of vegetable
Eat at least 2 servings of fish a week
Limit fat consumption to 30% of caloric intake
Reduce amount of sugar intake on a daily basis-avoid refined sugars
Avoid foods which body is allergic to

53. Take Supplements to Help brain
Multivitamin/multimineral supplement
Omega-3 Fatty Acid – found in fish oil – 500 milligrams a day because it contains both DHA and EPA acids which are very beneficial to brain given that DHA is the predominant structural fatty acid in central nervous system
Vitamin E as Gamma –Tocopherol – this is main antioxidant in cellular membranes within brain

54. Supplements for Neurotransmitters
Serotonin supplements: Iron, Vitamin B-6 and 5-Hydroxytryptophan and Tryptophan
Norepinephrine and Dopamine supplements: Iron and Vitamin B-6
Acetycholine supplement: egg yolks, beef, liver, or dairy fats or use phosphatidylserine, acetyl-l-carnitine or huperzine-A

55. Lifestyle Habits to Keep the Brain Healthy (1)
1. Physical Activity and Exercise – 3 times weekly for 45 minutes including some aerobics
Improves cognitive functions & sustains cerebral blood flow
Encourages angiogenesis which is development of new blood vessels
Increases neurogenesis & neuronal growth in hippocampus

56. Lifestyle Habits to Keep the Brain Healthy (2)
2. Engaging in intellectually stimulating activities throughout life
As people age it buffers against longitudinally-measured cognitive decline
Humans need high levels of cognitive activity throughout their adult life to optimize their cognitive functioning later on as they age