1. Announcements mid-term Thursday (Oct 27 th ) Project ideas to me by Nov 1 st latest Assignment 4 due tomorrow (or now) Assignment 5 posted, due Friday Oct 21 st

2. Lecture 13 Overview Active Filters Positive feedback Schmitt trigger/oscillator Analysing a more complex opamp circuit

3. Recap: Opamps DC coupled, very high gain, differential amplifier. Feed part of the output back into the inverting input to get stable operation in the linear amplification region Golden rules under negative feedback: The voltage at the inputs is the same (v + =v - ) No current flows into the opamp (i + =i - =0)

4. What about complex impedances?

5. Active low-pass filter e.g. R F /R S =10; 1/R F C F =1 Max Amplification: R F /R S Low pass factor: 1/(1+ jωR F C F ) Cut-off frequency (-3dB = 1/√2) when ωR F C F =1, ie ω 0 =1/R F C F

6. Active high-pass filter e.g. R F /R S =10; 1/R F C F =1 Max Amplification: R F /R S High pass factor: 1/(1+ 1/jωR S C S ) Cut-off frequency: ωR S C S =1

7. Active band-pass filter Combine the two: Advantages of active filters: 1)no inductors (large, expensive, pick-up) 2)buffered (high input impedance, low output impedance) – so filter performance independent of source and load; can cascade filters

8. Spot the Difference!

9. Positive feedback Consider what happens when there is a perturbation: Negative feedback cancels out the difference between the inputs, providing stable amplification Positive feedback drives opamp into saturation (at an exponential rate)

10. So what's the use of positive feedback? Comparator: Simple version - no feedback Amplifier saturates when v + -v - >10μV Set v - = v ref =0, input signal v signal on v + : Comparator compares two input voltages, v ref and v signal. if v signal > v ref the output voltage is high if v signal < v ref the output voltage is low

11. Real world problem: noisy signal v ref Small noise fluctuations generate spurious additional pulses before/after the main pulse (inverted output)

12. The Schmitt Trigger: Comparator with positive feedback Try R 1 =R 2, V S =+/-15V The circuit has 2 thresholds, depending on the output state Gives a clean transition. Known as hysteresis Choose resistors to set required difference between the two voltage levels in this state:

13. Oscillator: We can create a clock This sets the threshold levels This sets the clock period (  RC) v + =v o /2 v - =v C v o sets the voltage at v + and charges the capacitor

14. What use is a clock? Very useful in digital systems. For example: Send both the signal and a clock Common timebase defines when to 'look' at the signal e.g. whenever the clock is high output = 1,1,0 Discretization of time - one bit of information is associated with one clock pulse More details in later lectures

15. What does this circuit do? Break it down into elements

16. What does this circuit do? Two buffers (voltage followers): v o =v i

17. What does this circuit do? Inverting amplifier

18. Voltage drop from point X to point Y = 2V i, so: What does this circuit do? Also, at point Z, R X YZ V XZ

19. Now, gain Multiply top and bottom by (1-jωRC): None of the amplifiers change the amplitude:

20. What does this circuit do? R The circuit is a phase shifter! Output voltage is a phase shifted version of the input Vary R to vary the degree of phase shift. Nice audio effect – but also… Very useful for communications applications (e.g Electronically steerable microwave antenna arrays: PATRIOT= "Phased Array TRack to Intercept Of Target" )

21. What does this circuit do? The circuit is a phase shifter! Output voltage is a phase shifted version of the input Vary R to vary the degree of phase shift Very useful for communications applications (e.g Electronically steerable microwave antenna arrays: PATRIOT= "Phased Array TRack to Intercept Of Target" )

22. Non-Ideal Opamps: Basic Cautions 1) Avoid Saturation Voltage limits: V S - < v OUT < V S + In the saturation state, Golden Rules of opamp are not valid

23. Basic Cautions for opamp circuits 2) Feedback must be negative (inverting) for linear behaviour 3) There must always be negative feedback at DC (i.e. when ω=0). Otherwise any small DC offset will send the opamp into saturation Recall the integrator: In practice, a high-resistance resistor should be added in parallel with the capacitor to ensure feedback under DC, when the capacitive impedance is high 4) Don't exceed the maximum differential voltage limit on the inputs: this can destroy the opamp

24. Frequency response limits An ideal opamp has open-loop (no feedback) gain A=  More realistically, it is typically ~10 5 -10 6 at DC, dropping to 1 at a frequency, f T =1-10 MHz Above the roll-off point, the opamp acts like a low-pass filter - and introduces a 90º phase shift between input and output At higher frequencies, as the open-loop gain approaches 1, the phase shift increases If it reaches >180º degrees, and the open loop gain is >1, this results in positive feedback and high frequency oscillations The term "phase margin" refers to the difference between the phase shift at the frequency where the gain=1 (f T ) and 180º

25. Frequency response limits Open loop cut-off frequency, f 0 (also known as open loop bandwidth) is usually small (typically 100Hz) to ensure that the gain is <1 at a phase shift of 180º Closed-loop gain (gain of amplifier with feedback) begins dropping when open loop gain approaches R F /R S (in the case of the inverting amp) Cut off frequency will be higher for lower closed-loop gain circuits Inverting amplifier

26. Slew rate (or rise time) The maximum rate of change of the output of an opamp is known as the slew rate (in units of V/s) The slew rate affects all signals - not just square waves For example, at high enough frequencies, a sine wave input is converted to a triangular wave output due to limited slew rate square wave input

27. Slew rate example Consider an inverting amplifier, gain=10, built using an opamp with a slew rate of S 0 =1V/μs. Input a sinusoid with an amplitude of V i =1V and a frequency, ω. For a sinusoid, the slew rate limit is of the form AV i ω<S 0. We can therefore avoid this non-linear behaviour by decreasing the frequency (ω) lowering the Amplifier gain (A) lower the input signal amplitude (V i ) Typical values: 741C: 0.5V/μs, LF356: 50V/ μs, LH0063C: 6000V/ μs,