1. Myers’ Psychology for AP* David G. Myers *AP is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product. PowerPoint Presentation Slides by Kent Korek Germantown High School Worth Publishers, © 2010

2. Unit 2: Research Methods: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science

3. Unit Overview The Need for Psychological Science How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions? Statistical Reasoning in Everyday LifeStatistical Reasoning in Everyday Life Frequently Asked Questions about PsychologyFrequently Asked Questions about Psychology Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.

4. The Need for Psychology Science

5. Did We Know It All Along? Hindsight Bias Hindsight Bias –“I knew it all along” – “Out of sight, out of mind” – “Absence makes the heart grow fonder”

18. Overconfidence –Together with hindsight bias, can lead to overestimate our intuition

19. The Scientific Attitude Three main components –Curious eagerness –Skeptically scrutinize competing ideas –Open-minded humility before nature

20. Critical Thinking –“Smart thinking” –Four elements Examines assumptions Discerns hidden values Evaluates evidence Assesses conclusions

21. How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?

22. The Scientific Method Theory –“mere hunch” Hypothesis –Can be confirmed or refuted Operational Definition Replication (repeat)Replication

27. Figure 2.1 Theory construction

28. Figure 2.2 Flowchart of steps in a scientific investigation

29. The Scientific Method: Terminology Operational definitions are used to clarify precisely what is meant by each variable Participants or subjects are the organisms whose behavior is systematically observed in a study Data collection techniques allow for empirical observation and measurement Statistics are used to analyze data and decide whether hypotheses were supported

30. Table 2.1 Key Data Collection Techniques in Psychology

31. The Scientific Method: Terminology Findings are shared through reports at scientific meetings and in scientific journals – periodicals that publish technical and scholarly material –Advantages of the scientific method: clarity of communication and relative intolerance of error Research methods: general strategies for conducting scientific studies

32. The Scientific Method A good theory is useful if it: –Effectively organizes a range of self-reports and observations –Implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory

33. Types of Psychological Research 1.Experimental 2.Descriptive 3.Correlational 33

34. Experimental Research: Looking for Causes Experiment Manipulation of one variable under controlled conditions so that resulting changes in another variable can be observed –Detection of cause-and-effect relationships Independent variable (IV) = variable manipulated Dependent variable (DV) = variable affected by manipulation –How does X affect Y? –X = Independent Variable, and Y = Dependent Variable

35. Experimental and Control Groups: The Logic of the Scientific Method Experimental group Control group –Random assignment Different from random sample –Manipulate independent variable for one group only –Resulting differences in the two groups must be due to the independent variable Eliminates alternative explanations Extraneous and confounding variables

36. Experimentation Random Assignment Blind (uninformed) –Single-Blind Procedure –Double-Blind ProcedureDouble-Blind Procedure Placebo Effect

37. Experimentation Random Assignment Groups –Experimental GroupExperimental Group R eceives the treatment (independent variable) –Control GroupControl Group D oes not receive the treatment

38. Experimentation Independent and Dependent Variables Independent Variable –Confounding variableConfounding variable Effects minimized by using random assignment Dependent Variable –What is being measured

39. Figure 2.5 The basic elements of an experiment

40. Experimental Design

44. Experimental Designs: Variations Expose a single group to two different conditions –Reduces extraneous variables Manipulate more than one independent variable - Allows for study of interactions between variables Use more than one dependent variable - Obtains a more complete picture of effect of the independent variable

45. Figure 2.6 Manipulation of two independent variables in an experiment

46. Strengths and Weaknesses of Experimental Research Strengths: –conclusions about cause-and-effect can be drawn Weaknesses: –artificial nature of experiments –ethical and practical issues

47. Descriptive/Correlational Methods: Looking for Relationships Methods used when a researcher cannot manipulate the variables under study –Naturalistic observation –Case studies –Surveys Allow researchers to describe patterns of behavior and discover links or associations between variables but cannot imply causation

48. Description Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic Observation –Describes behavior Describing behavior is the first step in predicting it –Does not explain behavior

49. Description The Case Study Case Study –Suggest further study –Cannot discern general truths –Mostly used to gather insights and ideas, particularly in the early stages of investigating a topic describe rare phenomena create psychobiographies of famous people provide illustrative anecdotes –Limitations useless in providing evidence to test behavioral theories or treatments –uncontrolled environment and no comparison information no way of assessing the reliability or validity of the researcher’s observations or interpretations

50. Description The Survey Survey –Looks at many cases at once Word effects –Ignorance of numbers or words –Acceptable rather than honest responses –Questions are poorly framed –Wording in emotionally charged issues –Range of response options –Order of questions and alternatives 5 Rules of question design –Balance questions –Don’t assume knowledge –Use everyday language –Be concrete/clear –Don’t employ pejoratives Random sampling –Representative sample

51. Description The Survey Sampling –PopulationPopulation –Random SampleRandom Sample

52. Figure 2.10 Comparison of major research methods

53. Correlation Correlation (correlation coefficient)Correlationcorrelation coefficient –How well does A predict B –Positive versus negative correlation –Strength of the correlation -1.0 to +1.0 –ScatterplotScatterplot

54. Figure 2.14 Interpreting correlation coefficients

55. Correlation

64. Correlation Correlation and Causation Correlation helps predict –Does not imply cause and effect

69. Correlation Illusory Correlations Illusory Correlation –Perceived non-existent correlation –A random coincidence

70. Correlation Perceiving Order in Random Events Comes from our need to make sense out of the world –Coin flip –Poker hand

71. Comparing Research Methods

75. Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life

76. Describing Data Measures of Central Tendency Mode (occurs the most)Mode Mean (arithmetic average)Mean Median (middle score)Median

77. Figure 2.11 Measures of central tendency

78. Describing Data Measures of Variability Range Standard Deviation

79. Descriptive Statistics: Variability Variability = how much scores vary from each other and from the mean –Standard deviation = numerical depiction of variability High variability in data set = high standard deviation Low variability in data set = low standard deviation

80. Figure 2.12 Variability and the standard deviation

81. Describing Data Measures of Variability Normal Curve (bell shaped)

82. Inferential Statistics: Interpreting Data and Drawing Conclusions Hypothesis testing: do observed findings support the hypotheses? –Are findings real or due to chance? Statistical significance = when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low –Very low = less than 5 chances in 100/.05 level

83. Making Inferences When Is an Observed Difference Reliable? Representative samples are better than biased samples Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable More cases are better than fewer

84. Making Inferences When Is a Difference Significant? Statistical significance –The averages are reliable –The differences between averages is relatively large –Does imply the importance of the results

85. Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology

86. Psychology Applied Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? –The principles, not the research findings, help explain behavior

87. Psychology Applied Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender? –CultureCulture Influence of culture on behavior –Gender More similarities than differences

88. Ethics in Research Ethics in animal research –Reasons for using animals in research –Safeguards for animal use

89. Ethics in Psychological Research: Do the Ends Justify the Means? The question of deception The question of animal research –Controversy among psychologists and the public Ethical standards for research: the American Psychological Association –Ensures both human and animal subjects are treated with dignity

90. Ethics in Research Ethics in human research –Informed consentInformed consent –Protect from harm and discomfort –Maintain confidentiality –DebriefingDebriefing

91. Figure 2.17 Ethics in research

92. The End

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94. Teacher Information Hyperlink Slides - This presentation contain two types of hyperlinks. Hyperlinks can be identified by the text being underlined and a different color (usually purple). –Unit subsections hyperlinks: Immediately after the unit title slide, a page (slide #3) can be found listing all of the unit’s subsections. While in slide show mode, clicking on any of these hyperlinks will take the user directly to the beginning of that subsection. This allows teachers quick access to each subsection. –Bold print term hyperlinks: Every bold print term from the unit is included in this presentation as a hyperlink. While in slide show mode, clicking on any of the hyperlinks will take the user to a slide containing the formal definition of the term. Clicking on the “arrow” in the bottom left corner of the definition slide will take the user back to the original point in the presentation. These hyperlinks were included for teachers who want students to see or copy down the exact definition as stated in the text. Most teachers prefer the definitions not be included to prevent students from only “copying down what is on the screen” and not actively listening to the presentation. For teachers who continually use the Bold Print Term Hyperlinks option, please contact the author using the email address on the next slide to learn a technique to expedite the returning to the original point in the presentation.

95. Teacher Information Continuity slides –Throughout this presentation there are slides, usually of graphics or tables, that build on one another. These are included for three purposes. By presenting information in small chunks, students will find it easier to process and remember the concepts. By continually changing slides, students will stay interested in the presentation. To facilitate class discussion and critical thinking. Students should be encouraged to think about “what might come next” in the series of slides. Please feel free to contact me at kkorek@germantown.k12.wi.us with any questions, concerns, suggestions, etc. regarding these presentations. kkorek@germantown.k12.wi.us Kent Korek Germantown High School Germantown, WI 53022 262-253-3400 kkorek@germantown.k12.wi.us

96. Division title (green print) subdivision title ( blue print) xxx –xxx

97. Division title (green print) subdivision title ( blue print) Use this slide to add a table, chart, clip art, picture, diagram, or video clip. Delete this box when finished

98. Definition Slide = add definition here

99. Definition Slides

100. Hindsight Bias = the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Also known as the “I knew it all along” phenomenon.

101. Critical Thinking = thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

102. Theory = an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

103. Hypothesis = a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

104. Operational Definition = a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. i.e. Human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

105. Replication = repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

106. Case Study = an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

107. Survey = a technique for ascertaining the self- reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

108. Population = all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. Note: Except for national studies, this does NOT refer to a country’s whole population.

109. Random Sample = a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

110. Naturalistic Observation = observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

111. Correlation = a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

112. Correlation Coefficient = a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).

113. Scatterplot = a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

114. Illusory Correlation = the perception of a relationship where none exists.

115. Experiment = a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

116. Random Assigment = assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

117. Double-Blind Procedure = an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

118. Placebo Effect = experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

119. Experimental Group = in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

120. Control Group = in an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of treatment.

121. Independent Variable = the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

122. Confounding Variable = a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

123. Dependent Variable = the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

124. Mode = the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

125. Mean = the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

126. Median = the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it.

127. Range = the difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution.

128. Standard Deviation = a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

129. Normal Curve = a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scored fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

130. Statistical Significance = a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

131. Culture = the enduring behavior, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

132. Informed Consent = an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

133. Debriefing = the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.