1. PSY 323: Cognition
Chapter 1:
Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

2. Cognition and Cognitive Psychology
The mental processes that are involved in perception, attention, memory, problem solving, reasoning, and making decisions
Cognitive Psychology
Branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of cognition

3. Challenges of Cognitive Ψ
Often times, “the processes involved in cognition are complex and hidden from view”
Take a moment and think about all that is happening around you (perception, attention, memory, reasoning)

4. History of Cognitive Ψ: 1st Cognitive Psychology Experiment
Donders (1868)
Franciscus Donders, Dutch physiologist
Measured reaction time: time b/w presentation of stimulus and person’s response to that stimulus
Simple reaction time
The length of time it takes to push a button after the presentation of a stimulus
Choice reaction time
Push one of two buttons in response to a stimulus
Inferred mental process of perception
Mental response cannot be measured directly, but can be inferred from behavior (choice reaction time – simple reaction time = length of time to make a decision)
All research in cognitive psychology deals with inferred mental processes

6. A pioneer of the scientific study of memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus  (1850 – 1909)
Worked as philosopher at University in Berlin
Performed experiments on himself published in classic volume entitled: ‘Über das Gedächtnis’ (1885)

7. Memory experiments of Ebbinghaus: Focus on retention of newly learned material
Invented lists of 16 nonsense syllables to minimize influence of meaningful associations and
learner’s history
His goal: study memory in ‘pure’ form
Introduced criterion for successful learning

8. Hermann Ebbinghaus Ebbinghaus founded the experimental study of memory
Serial Learning Experiments
A list of items presented one at a time; you must recall them in order
Memorizing lists in sequence until they can be recalled perfectly
Ran tests on himself for six years
Memorized thousands of lists of nonsense syllables (ZAB, VUB, etc.)
Invented 2300 of these syllables, arranged them in random lists and tested them after various delays
What problems do you see with this methodology?

9. Ebbinghaus' Experiments
Serial Learning Experiments
Learning to criterion
Ebbinghaus would repeatedly attempt to learn the material until he achieved a perfect reproduction (every item memorized in the order originally presented)
“Method of savings“
Subtracting the number of repetitions required to relearn material to a criterion from the number originally required to learn the material to the same criterion
Savings = (Initial Repetitions – Relearning Repetitions)/ Initial Repetitions

10. Ebbinghaus' Experiments: Important Findings
List-length effect
Ease of learning and amount of information not related in linear one-to-one fashion
Disproportionate increase in difficulty with more than 7 syllables
Distributed practice
Beneficial effects of distributed practice for repetitions

11. Ebbinghaus' Experiments: Important Findings
Forgetting Curve
Recollection of words drops dramatically during the first hour of learning

12. Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt
1879, founded first laboratory of scientific psychology at the University of Leipzig, in order to study the mind scientifically
Carried out reaction-time experiments
Developed analytic introspection
Procedure used in which trained participants described their experiences and thought processes elicited by stimuli presented under controlled conditions
Problematic: introspection did not seem to reveal the structure of thought; results from different laboratories often disagreed

13. Abandoning the study of the mind…
Behaviorism
John Watson
Developed new approach to psychology by studying actual behaviors in their own right and not worrying about consciousness
Argued behavior is observable and objective
Studied impact of stimulus conditions on behavior (stimulus-response)
Most famous study: Little Albert 

14. Abandoning the study of the mind…
Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner 
Studied operant conditioning: believe reinforcements, not free will, determined behavior
Published book on verbal behavior that claimed language developed through imitation and reinforcement

15. Reemergence of the mind…
Cognitive Learning
Focus on the role of thinking processes in learning
Theory based on unseen internal factors rather than on external factors

16. Latent Learning Tolman and Honzik (1930)
Took three groups of rats and had them run a maze
Group 1
Reinforced every time they found their way out of the maze (food box) for ten days
Group 2
Never reinforced (no food at the end)
Group 3
Reinforced only after day 10 of the experiment

17. Latent Learning
On day 11, they timed the three groups to see which group would make it through the maze the quickest…
Which group do you think was the fastest?

18. Cognitive Psychology Scientific study of mental processes
Simply put “it is the study of thought”
Behavior is examined by cognitive psychologists the same way that physicists infer the force of gravity from the behavior of objects in the world.
Mental Processes: remembering, attention, producing and understanding language, solving problems, and making decisions
Thinking is something that is constantly happening, yet we rarely stop to think about it

19. Cognitive Processes Perception and Sensory Memory Attention
Organize and interpret incoming information (e.g., first lecture)
Sensory memory holds information, like an information buffer, just long enough to determine whether it seems worthwhile
Attention
Set of processes through which you focus on incoming information
Ability to attend is flexible—can divert (cocktail party effect, police car)
Attention is also limited

20. Rebirth of Study of the Mind
Cognitive Science
Study of the mind (mental processes) as carried out by many different disciplines
Disciplines: cognitive psychology, and research on the mind within the fields of computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, anthropology, artificial intelligence, and philosophy

21. Modern Approaches to Study the Mind
Behavioral Approach
Measure behavior and explain cognition in terms of behavior
e.g., reaction time
Measuring mental rotation exercise

22. Modern Approaches to Study the Mind
Physiological Approach
Measure both behavior and physiology and explain cognition in terms of physiology
e.g., reaction time and brain wave activity or brain activation
Davachi experiment (words that were remembered on the memory test had more brain activity when words were first exposed 

23. Models of the Mind: Introduction of Digital Computer
Flow Diagrams for the Mind
Rise of the Information Processing Metaphor
Broadbent’s flow diagram depicted the mind as processing information in a sequences of stages
Information processing models conceive of cognitive activities as involving a series of steps, procedures, or processes that take time (e.g., 1/10 second)

24. Credits
Some slides of this presentation prepared with the help of the following websites: