1. THERMODYNAMICS [5] Halliday, David, Resnick, Robert, and Walker, Jeart, Fundamentals of Physics, 6 th edition, John Wiley, Singapore, 2001, ISBN 0-471-33236-4 [5], p. 426-427 thermodynamics is the study of the thermal energy of systems. The central concept of thermodynamics is temperature Discuss intuitive notions of temperature. Why are they unreliable ? What is a thermometer ? Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: if bodies A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body T, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other

2. MEASURING TEMPERATURE [5], p. 427-429 We define the triple point of water to have a temperature value of here is the pressure of the gas in thermal equilibrium with the body and is the pressure of the gas at We define the temperature of any body by Gas- filled bulb Reservoir that can be raised and lowered

3. TEMPERATURE AND HEAT [5] 9. 433 Heat is energy transferred to a system from its environment because of a temperature difference that exists between them here C equals the heat capacity of an object One calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required that would raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5 degrees Celsius to 15.5 degrees Celsius (degrees Celsius = degrees Kelvin – 273.15) (1 cal = 4.1860J)

4. WORK thermal reservoir insulationinsulation W Q lead shot Volume Pressure Q and W are path dependent, not functions of state State diagram

5. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS There exists a function of state, called the internal energy and denoted by, such that or Special cases of thermodynamic processes include Adiabatic, Constant-volume, Cyclical, and Free expansions.

6. SECOND LAW REVISITED Lord Kelvin : A transformation whose only final result is to transform into work heat extracted from a source which is at the same temperature throughout is impossible Rudolph Clausius : A transformation whose only final result is to transfer heat from a body at a given temperature to a body at a higher temperature is impossible (this principle implies the previous one) Martian Skeptic : What temperature ?

7. SECOND LAW REVISITED Definition : Body A has higher temperature than body B ( ) if, when we bring them into thermal contact, heat flows from A to B. Body A has the same temperature as B ( ) if, when we bring them into thermal contact, no heat flows from A to B and no heat flows from B to A. ( [A] := {U | U A} ) Enrico Fermi : (Clausius Reformulated) If heat flows by conduction from a body A to another body B, then a transformation whose only final result is to transfer heat from B to A is impossible.

8. SECOND LAW REVISITED

9. Definition : Absolute Thermodynamic Temperature Choose a body D Ifthen In a reversible process

10. SECOND LAW REVISITED System : Cylinder that has a movable piston and contains a fixed amount of homogeneous fluid States (Macroscopic) : Region in positive quadrant of the (V = volume, T = temperature) plane. Functions (on region) : V, T, p = pressure Paths (in region) : Oriented curves Differential Forms : can be integrated over paths WORKHEAT

11. SECOND LAW REVISITED Definition : Entropy Function S (by thermal equilibrium and by thermal isolation)

12. FIRST LAW REVISITED such that Therefore

13. FIRST & SECOND LAWS COMBINED Therefore, the basic (but powerful) calculus identity Yields (after some tedious but straightforward algebra)

14. IDEAL GAS LAW (Chemists) Boyl, Gay-Lussac, Avogardo amount of gas in moles ideal gas constant ideal gas temperature in Kelvin (water freezes at 373.16 degrees)

15. JOULE’S GAS EXPANSION EXPERIMENT We substitute the expression for p (given by the ideal gas law) to obtain and observe that the outcome of Joule’s gas expansion experiment

16. IDEAL GAS LAW (Physicists) number of molecules of gas Boltzmann’s constant

17. GAS THERMODYNAMICS Experimental Result : (dilute gases) Therefore

18. GAS KINETICS Monatomic dilute gas, m = molecular mass average kinetic energy / molecule

19. GAS KINETICS Photon gases Maxwell Equipartition of Energy

20. EQUIPARTITION Stirling’s formula is Number of ways of partitioning N objects into m bins with relative frequencies (probabilities) yields where denotes Shannon’s information-theoretic entropy

21. EQUIPARTITION If the bins correspond to energies, then and therefore (nearly) C, is maximized, subject to an energy constraint distribution by the Gibbs Therefore and free energy Maxwell dist.

22. THIRD LAW Nernst : The entropy of every system at absolute zero can always be taken equal to zero inherently quantum mechanical discrete microstates, a quart bottle of air has about & Maxwell’s demon : may he rest in peace Time’s arrow : probably forward ???

23. REFERENCES H. Baeyer, Warmth Disperses and Time Passes R. Feynman, Lectures on Physics, Volume 1 E. Fermi, Thermodynamics V. Ambegaokar, Reasoning about Luck F. Faurote, The How and Why of the Automobile

24. REFERENCES C. Shannon and W. Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication K. Huang, Statistical Mechanics N. Hurt and R. Hermann, Quantum Statistical Mechanics and Lie Group Harmonic Analysis H. S. Green and T. Triffet, Sources of Consciousness, The Biophysical and Computational Basis of Thought