1. Middle 19 th Century Culture

2. Politics and Culture in The Second Reich  Bismarck, fearing internal opposition to conservative rule, moved against enemies: Catholics and Socialists.  Catholics – with the Kulturkampf program, attempted to take control of church functions away; this failed.  Socialists – the Social Democratic Party of Ferdinand Lassalle was forced underground in public life, but continued to gain in Reichstag elections.

3. Reform in Russia  After defeat in the Crimean War, Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom in 1861.  Mir (village communes) grew in importance for establishing farming communities for former serfs.  Zemstvos (district councils) were created in 1864 to increase local control.  Revolt in Poland in 1863 and the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 kept the government in tight control.

4. Preserving the Austrian Empire  Internal national divisions and military defeats at the hands of the Italians, Prussians and French caused continued disunity in the Austrian Empire.  Under nationalist Ferencz Deak, Hungary gained autonomy.  Franz Joseph became king of Hungary in the now Austro-Hungarian Empire.

5. Popular Culture  Mass culture in Europe reached more people than ever before.  Culture took on distinctly national elements.  Museums, theatres, opera houses and historic sights opened to the public and were treated with national reverence.

6. Newspapers  By mid century, newspapers and periodicals took on great importance.  Circulation of some newspapers increased tenfold in less than a half century.  Newspapers grew in size, used new technologies (telegraph and photography) and made considerable profits on advertising and subscriptions

7. Changing Styles  Most cultural expressions of the period reflected national pride and connections to history.  Opera was the most popular artistic form as it attempted to synthesize the arts.  Richard Wagner  Giuseppe Verdi  The novel continued to grow as the main literary style.  Romanticism began to give way to realism (c. 1850-1880) in all of the arts of the period.

8. Realism – Edgar Degas The Bellelli Family

9. Realism - Jean-François Millet The Gleaners

10. Cultural Professions  Writers, artists and performers were able to make a considerable living during this period by excelling in their profession.  This was extended to academics as departments of history, economics, and the arts took shape at universities.  History had a special place in the formation and understanding of national cultures.

11. Religious Thought  In many ways, the 19 th century was a very religious period.  Reaction against the Enlightenment fueled this pattern.  Strict “Victorian” morality permeated the culture.  Religious influence brought about the end of slavery and established charity organizations.

12. Cultural Impact  National cultures during the Middle 19 th Century were more dynamic than ever before.  The arts were national and urban, rather than centered in courts or salons.  Mass culture allowed more writers, artists and musicians to succeed at their craft and reach a larger audience than ever before.