1. Iraq’s political players The Case of Iraq

2. Map of Iraq

3. Background on Iraq: Four Points To Remember Iraq did not exist as a state prior to 1921. Created from 3 Ottoman provinces of Mosul, Baghdad, & Basra Diverse Population Religious divisions: Sunnis, Shiites (& Christians) Ethno-linguistic divisions: Arabs, Kurds Population: 60% Shiite Arab; 15% Sunni Arab; 20 % Kurd (mostly Sunnis) Urban-Rural divisions British invasion and colonial administration Nov 1914 British invasion Imported monarchy 1921 Faisal from Arabia becomes king. Iraq gains formal independence in 1932.

5. Centralizing State vs Established social elites: Iraq as a British-allied constitutional monarchy, 1921-1936 Iraqi Politics, Phase 1

6. Formal Institutions of the State King (a new institution) Supreme head of state Could open & dissolve Parliament Confirms laws Selects PM Could grant pardons, issue special ordinances Parliament Shares legislative power with the king Appointed Senate & elected chamber of deputies

7. Faisal I, 1 st king of Iraq Photos from Iraqipages.com

8. Faisal’s goals…. Survival Gradual eradication of British influence in Iraq Creation of a national state Creation of national army Conscription Mass education

9. And challengers… British (wanted to maintain power) Kurds (opposed Arab nationalism) Shiite Arabs (opposed educational reforms & exclusion from government) Tribal leaders (opposed efforts to redistribute land and erode their power base) The “masses” (opposed conscription, etc.) In 1930s, at least 80 percent of Iraq’s population was rural

10. Effects of British colonialism on Iraqi political structures? Perpetuation of Sunni Arab political dominance Re-empowerment of the tribes in rural areas Reinforced major schisms in Iraqi society

11. Major players in Iraqi Politics, 1921-1936 Monarchy & Prime Ministry Rural Shiites Tribal leaders & Landlords Kurds British

12. Results: Catch 22s Fledgling sense of Iraqi national identity but “two Iraqs” and no real independence King wants independence but relies on British to maintain power British support undermines state legitimacy but necessary for maintaining power Centralization of power in Baghdad but British support for tribes to create mass support, land reform needed, but narrow base of state support requires some aid from tribal leaders

13. Iraqi Politics, Phase II: The rise of the military & the creation of the Iraqi Republic (1936-1968)

14. 1958 Revolution Violent overthrow of the monarchy Creation of the Republic of Iraq Ceremonial president Qasim as PM, commander in chief, minister of defense Reform & Dictatorship under President Abd al-Karim Qasim Purging of western advisors, efforts to solve Kurdish problem, land reform, public welfare projects Centralization of authority Abd al Karim Qasim, President of Iraq, 1958-1963

15. Results: Violence becomes entrenched part of Iraqi political culture Army influence over politics prevents civilian access, impedes societal coalition building Between 1958 and 1968 more than 10 coups and attempted coups, two armed rebellions, semi-continuous civil war against Kurds. 25-35% of all cabinet posts held by military men Three presidents, most PMs, and almost all ministers of interior and defense were ex-military men Newly independent foreign policy Some land reforms & sporadic inclusion of Shiites & Kurds into the political process

16. Major Players in Iraqi Politics, 1936-1968 Iraqi Army KurdsShiites Prime Ministry/monarchy (until 1958) Landlords British (until 1958) Iraqi Communist Party Baath PartyEgypt &Syria

17. Phase III STATE OVER SOCIETY Iraq as a One Party State: The Baath Party and the Authoritarian Rule of Saddam Hussein, 1968-2003

18. Two coups: 1963 and 1968 1963: Baath Party + Military (Arif) Baath forced out of the new govt after the coup 1968: Baath Party coup Reasons for coups: pan-Arabism vs Iraqi nationalism Patronage Those who dominate the state dominate access to resources Military seeks to maintain control over political process Lack of leadership linked to preoccupation with managing the dispersal of the state’s resources

19. The rise and rule of Saddam Hussein Biography: DOB: 04/28/37 in Tikrit, 100 m. north of Baghdad Peasant family with influential army relatives most prominent: Uncle Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr; a leader of the 1963 coup and later PM. Tribal society: al-Bejat clan, Albu Nasir Tribe High school in Baghdad; joined Baath Party when 20, aided in failed assassination of Qasim in Oct. 1959. Saddam Hussein’s identity card, when he was 10 years old. Photo: PBS Frontline website

20. After 1963 coup becomes vice chair of the main decision making body for the Baath regime. Also in charge of the security services. Becomes president in 1979 when al-Bakr was persuaded to step down. Above left, SH in Cairo after failed ’59 coup; above, SH at 17.

21. Resistance Kurds – open war 1970-1975, with backing of Iran Shiites- formation of secret, clerically led groups antigovernment demonstrations in the late 1970s; arrest and execution of prominent Shiite leaders

22. Autocracy How Saddam Hussein & the Baath maintained power, 1968-1991

23. 1. Oil Nationalization of the Iraq Petroleum Company in 1972 + OPEC oil embargo and hike in prices in 1973 = skyrocketing oil revenues for Baath use 1968 oil revenues: $476 million; 1980- $26 billion In 1979 Iraq’s oil production second only to Saudi Arabia’s in oil-producing states of the Persian Gulf.

24. (How SH maintained power): 2. Social welfare reduction of taxes Subsidies for basic food Free, high quality health care No university tuition fees Improvements in status of women (In ’82 more than 30 % univ. students were female) Extensive literacy campaigns new highway systems & better infrastructure Subsidies of ordinary consumption items Land ownerships & no taxes for many Shiite peasants living in the south Extensive reforms in the countryside; new land distributed to farmers between 1970 and 1982 264,400 farmers received grants of land.

25. Saddam Hussein visiting homes, 1980s

26. (How SH maintained power) 3. Fear & terror Wholesale political repression and persecution of all potential dissidents Imprisonment, extrajudicial executions Death sentences including for non-violent offenses, in 1998 and 1999 hundreds of prisoners summarily executed in a “jail cleaning” program Public hangings and public executions. Creation of multiple, alternative sets of internal security organizations State internal security, military intelligence, party intelligence Massive surveillance and informant system Forced internal migration to resettle restive areas (especially Kurds and Shiite Marsh Arabs)

27. (How SH maintained power) 4. Cult of Personality

28. 1989 Victory Arch

29. (How SH maintained power) 5. War Iran-Iraq War 1980-1989 longest conventional war of the 20 th century Cost: 100-000 200,000 Iraqis dead, 400,000 wounded, 70,000 prisoners. $25 billion debt to Saudis, $10 billion to Kuwait; $40 billion to the US, Europe and rest of the world. Results: solidified sentiments of Iraqi national identity among the bulk of the population. Because of concern over Shiite loyalty SH brought greater numbers of Shiites into the regime as well as repressing any political activity. Islamicization of the regime

30. (More results of Iran-Iraq War) armed forces grew from 190,000 to over 1 million; Republican Guard grows from 1 to 37 brigades. Iraq becomes major regional military power Militarization of society as armed forces became most important part of the state. Gulf War (1990-1991) After war, SH considerably weaker, forced to rely more on tribes to maintain authority UN sanctions also help him maintain power

31. Major Players in Iraqi politics, 1968-1991/2003 Army Saddam Hussein & Tikriti tribes Baath Party Other tribes (after 1991)

32. Common themes? Who has been in and who has been out? How have those that maintained power done it?