1. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com PRODUKSI BAB 8

2. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Topics to be Discussed u The Technology of Production u Isoquants u Production with One Variable Input (Labor) u Production with Two Variable Inputs u Returns to Scale

3. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Introduction u Our focus is the supply side. u The theory of the firm will address: –How a firm makes cost-minimizing production decisions –How cost varies with output –Characteristics of market supply –Issues of business regulation

4. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com The Technology of Production u The Production Process – Combining inputs or factors of production to achieve an output u Categories of Inputs (factors of production) – Labor – Materials – Capital

5. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com The Technology of Production u Production Function: –Indicates the highest output that a firm can produce for every specified combination of inputs given the state of technology. – Shows what is technically feasible when the firm operates efficiently.

6. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com The Technology of Production u The production function for two inputs: Q = F(K,L) Q = Output, K = Capital, L = Labor u For a given technology

7. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Isoquants u Assumptions –Food producer has two inputs v Labor (L) & Capital (K)

8. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Isoquants u Observations: 1) For any level of K, output increases with more L. 2)For any level of L, output increases with more K. 3)Various combinations of inputs produce the same output.

9. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Isoquants u Isoquants –Curves showing all possible combinations of inputs that yield the same output

10. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Production Function for Food 12040556575 24060758590 3557590100105 46585100110115 57590105115120 Capital Input12345 Labor Input

11. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Production with Two Variable Inputs (L,K) Labor per year 1 2 3 4 12345 5 Q 1 = 55 The isoquants are derived from the production function for output of of 55, 75, and 90. A D B Q 2 = 75 Q 3 = 90 C E Capital per year The Isoquant Map

12. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Isoquants u The isoquants emphasize how different input combinations can be used to produce the same output. u This information allows the producer to respond efficiently to changes in the markets for inputs. Input Flexibility

13. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Isoquants u Short-run: – Period of time in which quantities of one or more production factors cannot be changed. – These inputs are called fixed inputs. The Short Run versus the Long Run

14. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Isoquants u Long-run – Amount of time needed to make all production inputs variable. The Short Run versus the Long Run

15. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com AmountAmountTotalAverage Marginal of Labor (L)of Capital (K)Output (Q)ProductProduct Production with One Variable Input (Labor) 0100------ 110101010 210301520 310602030 410802020 510951915 6101081813 710112164 810112140 91010812-4 101010010-8

16. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations: 1) With additional workers, output (Q) increases, reaches a maximum, and then decreases. Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

17. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations: 2) The average product of labor (AP), or output per worker, increases and thendecreases. Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

18. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations: 3) The marginal product of labor (MP), or output of the additional worker, increases rapidly initially and then decreases and becomes negative.. Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

19. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Total Product A: slope of tangent = MP (20) B: slope of OB = AP (20) C: slope of OC= MP & AP Labor per Month Output per Month 60 112 023456789101 A B C D Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

20. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Average Product Production with One Variable Input (Labor) 8 10 20 Outpu t per Month 02345679101 Labor per Month 30 E Marginal Product Observations: Left of E: MP > AP & AP is increasing Right of E: MP < AP & AP is decreasing E: MP = AP & AP is at its maximum

21. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations: – When MP = 0, TP is at its maximum – When MP > AP, AP is increasing – When MP < AP, AP is decreasing – When MP = AP, AP is at its maximum Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

22. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Production with One Variable Input (Labor) Labor per Month Output per Month 60 112 023456789101 A B C D 8 20 E 0234567 9 10 1 30 Output per Month Labor per Month AP = slope of line from origin to a point on TP, lines b, & c. MP = slope of a tangent to any point on the TP line, lines a & c.

23. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u As the use of an input increases in equal increments, a point will be reached at which the resulting additions to output decreases (i.e. MP declines). Production with One Variable Input (Labor) The Law of Diminishing Marginal Returns

24. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u When the labor input is small, MP increases due to specialization. u When the labor input is large, MP decreases due to inefficiencies. The Law of Diminishing Marginal Returns Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

25. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Can be used for long-run decisions to evaluate the trade-offs of different plant configurations u Assumes the quality of the variable input is constant The Law of Diminishing Marginal Returns Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

26. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Explains a declining MP, not necessarily a negative one u Assumes a constant technology The Law of Diminishing Marginal Returns Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

27. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com The Effect of Technological Improvement Labor per time period Output per time period 50 100 023456789101 A O1O1 C O3O3 O2O2 B Labor productivity can increase if there are improvements in technology, even though any given production process exhibits diminishing returns to labor.

28. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Malthus predicted mass hunger and starvation as diminishing returns limited agricultural output and the population continued to grow. u Why did Malthus’ prediction fail? Malthus and the Food Crisis

29. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Index of World Food Consumption Per Capita 1948-1952100 1960115 1970123 1980128 1990137 1995135 1998140 Year Index

30. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Malthus and the Food Crisis u The data show that production increases have exceeded population growth. u Malthus did not take into consideration the potential impact of technology which has allowed the supply of food to grow faster than demand.

31. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Malthus and the Food Crisis u Technology has created surpluses and driven the price down. u Question –If food surpluses exist, why is there hunger?

32. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Malthus and the Food Crisis u Answer – The cost of distributing food from productive regions to unproductive regions and the low income levels of the non-productive regions.

33. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Labor Productivity Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

34. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Labor Productivity and the Standard of Living –Consumption can increase only if productivity increases. –Determinants of Productivity v Stock of capital v Technological change Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

35. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Labor Productivity in Developed Countries 1960-19734.754.048.302.892.36 1974-19862.101.852.501.690.71 1987-19971.482.001.941.021.09 United FranceGermanyJapanKingdomStates Annual Rate of Growth of Labor Productivity (%) $54,507$55,644$46,048$42,630$60,915 Output per Employed Person (1997)

36. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Trends in Productivity 1) U.S. productivity is growing at a slower rate than other countries. 2)Productivity growth in developed countries has been decreasing. Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

37. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Explanations for Productivity Growth Slowdown 1)Growth in the stock of capital is the primary determinant of the growth in productivity. Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

38. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Explanations for Productivity Growth Slowdown 2)Rate of capital accumulation in the U.S. was slower than other developed countries because the others were rebuilding after WWII. Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

39. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Explanations for Productivity Growth Slowdown 3)Depletion of natural resources 4) Environment regulations Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

40. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observation –U.S. productivity has increased in recent years u What Do You Think? –Is it a short-term aberration or a new long-run trend? Production with One Variable Input (Labor)

41. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Production with Two Variable Inputs u There is a relationship between production and productivity. u Long-run production K& L are variable. u Isoquants analyze and compare the different combinations of K & L and output

42. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com The Shape of Isoquants Labor per year 1 2 3 4 12345 5 In the long run both labor and capital are variable and both experience diminishing returns. Q 1 = 55 Q 2 = 75 Q 3 = 90 Capital per year A D B C E

43. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Reading the Isoquant Model 1)Assume capital is 3 and labor increases from 0 to 1 to 2 to 3. v Notice output increases at a decreasing rate (55, 20, 15) illustrating diminishing returns from labor in the short-run and long-run. Production with Two Variable Inputs Diminishing Marginal Rate of Substitution

44. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Reading the Isoquant Model 2)Assume labor is 3 and capital increases from 0 to 1 to 2 to 3. v Output also increases at a decreasing rate (55, 20, 15) due to diminishing returns from capital. Diminishing Marginal Rate of Substitution Production with Two Variable Inputs

45. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Substituting Among Inputs – Managers want to determine what combination if inputs to use. – They must deal with the trade-off between inputs. Production with Two Variable Inputs

46. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Substituting Among Inputs – The slope of each isoquant gives the trade-off between two inputs while keeping output constant. Production with Two Variable Inputs

47. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Substituting Among Inputs – The marginal rate of technical substitution equals: Production with Two Variable Inputs

48. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution Labor per month 1 2 3 4 12345 5 Capital per year Isoquants are downward sloping and convex like indifference curves. 1 1 1 1 2 1 2/3 1/3 Q 1 =55 Q 2 =75 Q 3 =90

49. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations: 1)Increasing labor in one unit increments from 1 to 5 results in a decreasing MRTS from 1 to 1/2. 2) Diminishing MRTS occurs because of diminishing returns and implies isoquants are convex. Production with Two Variable Inputs

50. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations: 3)MRTS and Marginal Productivity v The change in output from a change in labor equals: Production with Two Variable Inputs

51. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations: 3)MRTS and Marginal Productivity v The change in output from a change in capital equals: Production with Two Variable Inputs

52. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations: 3)MRTS and Marginal Productivity v If output is constant and labor is increased, then: Production with Two Variable Inputs

53. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Isoquants When Inputs are Perfectly Substitutable Labor per month Capital per month Q1Q1 Q2Q2 Q3Q3 A B C

54. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations when inputs are perfectly substitutable: 1)The MRTS is constant at all points on the isoquant. Production with Two Variable Inputs Perfect Substitutes

55. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations when inputs are perfectly substitutable: 2) For a given output, any combination of inputs can be chosen (A, B, or C) to generate the same level of output (e.g. toll booths & musical instruments) Production with Two Variable Inputs Perfect Substitutes

56. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Fixed-Proportions Production Function Labor per month Capital per month L1L1 K1K1 Q1Q1 Q2Q2 Q3Q3 A B C

57. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations when inputs must be in a fixed-proportion: 1)No substitution is possible.Each output requires a specific amount of each input (e.g. labor and jackhammers). Fixed-Proportions Production Function Production with Two Variable Inputs

58. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations when inputs must be in a fixed-proportion: 2) To increase output requires more labor and capital (i.e. moving from A to B to C which is technically efficient). Fixed-Proportions Production Function Production with Two Variable Inputs

59. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com A Production Function for Wheat u Farmers must choose between a capital intensive or labor intensive technique of production.

60. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Isoquant Describing the Production of Wheat Labor (hours per year) Capital (machine hour per year) 2505007601000 40 80 120 100 90 Output = 13,800 bushels per year A B Point A is more capital-intensive, and B is more labor-intensive.

61. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations: 1)Operating at A: v L = 500 hours and K = 100 machine hours. Isoquant Describing the Production of Wheat

62. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations: 2)Operating at B v Increase L to 760 and decrease K to 90 the MRTS < 1: Isoquant Describing the Production of Wheat

63. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations: 3)MRTS < 1, therefore the cost of labor must be less than capital in order for the farmer substitute labor for capital. 4)If labor is expensive, the farmer would use more capital (e.g. U.S.). Isoquant Describing the Production of Wheat

64. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com u Observations: 5) If labor is inexpensive, the farmer would use more labor (e.g. India). Isoquant Describing the Production of Wheat

65. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Returns to Scale u Measuring the relationship between the scale (size) of a firm and output 1)Increasing returns to scale: output more than doubles when all inputs are doubled v Larger output associated with lower cost (autos) v One firm is more efficient than many (utilities) v The isoquants get closer together

66. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Returns to Scale Labor (hours) Capital (machine hours) 10 20 30 Increasing Returns: The isoquants move closer together 510 2 4 0 A

67. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Returns to Scale u Measuring the relationship between the scale (size) of a firm and output 2)Constant returns to scale: output doubles when all inputs are doubled v Size does not affect productivity v May have a large number of producers v Isoquants are equidistant apart

68. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Returns to Scale Labor (hours) Capital (machine hours) Constant Returns: Isoquants are equally spaced 10 20 30 15510 2 4 0 A 6

69. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Returns to Scale u Measuring the relationship between the scale (size) of a firm and output 3)Decreasing returns to scale: output less than doubles when all inputs are doubled v Decreasing efficiency with large size v Reduction of entrepreneurial abilities v Isoquants become farther apart

70. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Returns to Scale Labor (hours) Capital (machine hours) Decreasing Returns: Isoquants get further apart 10 20 30 510 2 4 0 A

71. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Returns to Scale in the Carpet Industry u The carpet industry has grown from a small industry to a large industry with some very large firms.

72. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Returns to Scale in the Carpet Industry u Question –Can the growth be explained by the presence of economies to scale?

73. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Carpet Shipments, 1996 (Millions of Dollars per Year) The U.S. Carpet Industry 1. Shaw Industries$3,2026. World Carpets$475 2. Mohawk Industries1,7957. Burlington Industries450 3. Beaulieu of America1,0068. Collins & Aikman418 4. Interface Flooring8209. Masland Industries380 5. Queen Carpet77510. Dixied Yarns280

74. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Returns to Scale in the Carpet Industry u Are there economies of scale? –Costs (percent of cost) v Capital -- 77% v Labor -- 23%

75. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Returns to Scale in the Carpet Industry u Large Manufacturers –Increased in machinery & labor –Doubling inputs has more than doubled output –Economies of scale exist for large producers

76. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Returns to Scale in the Carpet Industry u Small Manufacturers –Small increases in scale have little or no impact on output –Proportional increases in inputs increase output proportionally –Constant returns to scale for small producers

77. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Summary u A production function describes the maximum output a firm can produce for each specified combination of inputs. u An isoquant is a curve that shows all combinations of inputs that yield a given level of output.

78. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Summary u Average product of labor measures the productivity of the average worker, whereas marginal product of labor measures the productivity of the last worker added.

79. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Summary u The law of diminishing returns explains that the marginal product of an input eventually diminishes as its quantity is increased.

80. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Summary u Isoquants always slope downward because the marginal product of all inputs is positive. u The standard of living that a country can attain for its citizens is closely related to its level of productivity.

81. nuhfil hanani : web site : www.nuhfil.com, email : nuhfil@yahoo.com Summary u In long-run analysis, we tend to focus on the firm’s choice of its scale or size of operation.