1. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 1 The Search for Causes CHAPTER 3

2. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 2  Why does a person commit a crime?  What causes crime and deviance?  Are people basically good?  Why are some people violent and aggressive?  Are people motivated only by self- interest? Criminologists search for answers to those types of questions. Causes of Crime

3. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 3 Criminology seeks to find the cause of crime and deviant behavior.  Crime—violation of the criminal law for which there is no legal justification.  Deviance—violation of social norms that specify appropriate or proper behavior under a particular set of circumstances (often includes crime). http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GHaCR6ptOlswww.youtube.com/watch?v=GHaCR6ptOls Criminology

4. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 4 Criminological Theory Through the years, many theories have been advanced to explain crime and deviance.  A theory is a set of interrelated propositions that attempt to describe, explain, and predict a set of events.  Once created, theories must be tested to determine validity.

5. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 5 Theory Testing Theory testing involves developing hypotheses based on the theory’s predictions.  A hypothesis is an explanation that accounts for a set of facts and that can be tested by further investigation. Also, it is something that is taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigation. Hypotheses are tested using research methods— standardized, systematic procedures.

6. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 6 To provide models that allow for a better understanding of criminal behavior and that enhance the development of strategies which allow us to address the problem of crime. Goal of Research and Theory Building

7. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 7

8. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 8 Explanations of criminal behavior fall into eight general categories. 1. Classical 2. Biological 3. Psychobiological 4. Psychological 5. Sociological 6. Social Process 7. Conflict 8. Emergent Interdisciplinary theories, or integrated theories, could possibly be a ninth category. Categories of Theory

9. 9 2009 Pearson Education, Inc Classical and Neoclassical Theories

10. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 10 Basic Assumptions 1)Crime is caused by the individual exercise of “free will.” 2)Pain and pleasure are the two central determinants of human behavior. 3)Punishment is sometimes required to deter law violators. 4)Crime prevention is possible through swift and certain punishment, which offsets any gains to be had through criminal behavior. Characteristics of Classical and Neoclassical Theories

11. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 11 In 1784, Beccaria published Essays on Crimes and Punishment. Beccaria:  Was considered controversial at the time.  Felt punishments should be more humanitarian.  Called for the end of physical punishment and the death penalty.  Posited that punishment needs to be: Certain Swift Severe  Believed that punishment should fit the crime and not be excessive. Cesare Beccaria: Crime and Punishment

12. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 12 Concept developed by Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)  People make “free will” decisions to commit crime by weighing of advantages versus disadvantages of action. If advantages outweigh disadvantages, then a person will likely commit crime.  To deter people from committing crime, the punishment/disadvantages need(s) to outweigh the rewards/advantages.  Bentham called this philosophy utilitarianism. Jeremy Bentham’s Hedonistic Calculus

13. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 13 Neoclassical criminology is rooted in the classical school.  Emphasizes deterrence and retribution  Believes that individuals use free will to decide to conform or commit crime  Places greater emphasis on rationality and cognition than classical criminologists Examples:  Rational choice theory  Routine activities theory The Neoclassical Perspective

14. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 14 Rational choice theory holds that criminality is the result of conscious choice.  Individuals commit crime when the benefits outweigh the costs. Routine activities theory holds that lifestyles contribute to the volume and type of crime found in society.  Crime is likely to occur when a motivated offender and a suitable target come together in absence of a capable guardian. The Neoclassical Perspective

15. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 15 Social Policy and Classical Theories Classical theories form the basis of many criminal justice programs. High crime rates call for punishment to get even and to prevent future crime.

16. 16 2009 Pearson Education, Inc Biological Theories

17. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 17 Basic Assumptions 1)Human behavior is constitutionally or genetically determined. 2)Basic determinants of human behavior may be passed from generation to generation. 3)Some behavior is the result of propensities inherited from more primitive developmental stages in the evolutionary process. Characteristics of Biological Theories

18. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 18 Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828): Phrenology Phrenology, study of the shape of the head and its relationship to human behavior, focused on the head and brain in what Gall called “crainioscopy.”  The brain is the organ of the mind.  The brain consists of localized faculties or functions.  The shape of the skull reveals underlying development (or lack of development) of areas within the brain.  A personality can be revealed by a study of the skull.

19. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 19 Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909): Atavism Father Of Modern Criminology Lombroso—the founder of the Positivist School of criminology—borrowed the term “atavism” from the work of Charles Darwin.  “Atavism” implies that people are born criminals and are characterized by features thought to be common in earlier stages of human evolution.  Examples of stigmata: long arms, large lips, crooked nose, large amount of body hair, eyes of different colors, ears lack defined lobes, etc…

20. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 20 In 1913, Charles Goring and Karl Pearson:  compared 3,000 English convicts to army officers  found NO significant differences between the two groups using Lombroso’s criteria In 1939, Ernest Hooten:  compared 13,000 male prisoners in 10 states to 3,000 National Guard members, firemen, etc.  found some support for Lombroso’s ideas, though his methods may have been flawed Evidence of Atavism?

21. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 21 In 1877, Richard Dugdale studied the Juke family.  Over 75 years, the heirs of Ada Juke included 1,200 persons, mostly social degenerates. Goddard (1912) studied two lines of the Kallikak family.  One line descended from a feebleminded bar maid.  Over half of these descendants were feebleminded.  The second line descended from a “virtuous Quaker girl.”  1/3 of these descendants were feebleminded. Criminal Families

22. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 22 Sheldon developed the idea of somatotyping— classifying people according to body build.  Mesomorph—predominance of muscle, bone, and connective tissue  Ectomorph—thinness, fragility, and delicacy of body  Endomorph—soft roundness throughout short tapering limbs, small bones, soft velvety skin Each body type has a characteristic personality, and mesomorphs were most prone to aggression, violence, and delinquency. William Sheldon (1893 – 1977): Somatypes

23. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 23 Social Policy and Biological Theories Policies based on biological theories are usually considered “extreme.” Example: Eugenics movement of the 1920s.

24. 24 2009 Pearson Education, Inc Psychobiological Theories

25. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 25 Basic Assumptions Focus is on the relationship of the following to criminal behavior: 1.DNA 2.environmental contaminants 3.nutrition 4.hormones 5.physical trauma 6.body chemistry in human cognition and behavior Characteristics of Psychobiological Theories

26. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 26 The links between chromosomes and crime were first explored in the 1960s.  1965—Patricia Jacobs discovered “supermales,” men with an extra “Y” chromosome (XYY). She found that “supermales” were more common in prisons than in the general public.  Other studies found that XYY males were more aggressive than other males and had a number of specific physical and psychological traits.  Later studies disputed many of these findings. Chromosome Theory

27. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 27 Biocriminology attempts to link violent or disruptive behavior to eating habits, vitamin deficiencies, genetics, inheritance, and other conditions which impact body tissues. For example, some studies have linked crime to:  Hypoglycemia  Allergic reactions to foods  High levels of caffeine and sugar  Testosterone levels  Low levels of certain neurotransmitters  A malfunctioning endocrine system Biochemical Factors and Imbalances

28. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 28 Adoption and twin studies have shown:  Children adopted at birth have shown a tendency toward criminality of biological parents.  Identical twins separated at birth indicate that they exhibit a greater similarity in terms of criminality than do fraternal twins, who exhibit greater similarities than ordinary siblings. Wilson and Herrnstein (1985) argue that inherited traits combine with environmental factors to produce crime. Heredity and Other Physical Factors

29. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 29 Social Policy and Biological Theories Policies look to modify body chemistry to change behavior. Example: Medication

30. 30 2009 Pearson Education, Inc Psychological Theories

31. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 31 Basic Assumptions 1)The individual is the main unit of analysis. 2)Personality is the major motivational element. 3)Crimes result from inappropriately conditioned behavior. 4)Abnormal mental processes may have a number of causes.  Diseased mind  Inappropriate learning  Improper conditioning Characteristics of Psychological Theories

32. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 32 Behavioral conditioning is a psychological principle which holds that the frequency of any behavior can be increased or decreased through reward, punishment, and/or association with other stimuli. This was popularized through the work of Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) whose work with dogs won him a Nobel Prize. Behavioral Conditioning

33. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 33 Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) identified three elements of the personality: 1.Id 2.Ego 3.Superego Psychoanalysis sees personality as a complex composite of interacting mental elements. Crime can result from:  A weak superego  Sublimation/dislike of one’s mother  The death wish Freudian Psychoanalysis

34. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 34 Psychopathology studies pathological mental conditions (mental illness). Psychopath—a person with a personality disorder, especially manifested in aggressively antisocial behavior, which is often said to be the result of a poorly developed superego.  It is possible for the psychopath to inflict pain without appreciation for the victim’s suffering.  Psychopathic people are likely to become criminal at some point. Psychopathology and Crime

35. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 35 Psychosis is another form of mental disorder. Psychotics are people who are said to be out of touch with reality. Some psychotics are classified as schizophrenic—people with disordered or disjointed thinking in which they make abnormal logical connections between things. Psychosis can lead to crime. The Psychotic Offender

36. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 36 Social Policy and Psychological Theories Policies are primarily individualistic and oriented toward individualized treatment and therapy plans designed to reduce a person’s dangerousness.

37. 37 2009 Pearson Education, Inc Sociological Theories

38. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 38 Basic Assumptions 1)Social groups, social institutions, the arrangement of society, and social roles are all appropriate for study. 2)Group dynamics, group organization, and subgroup relationships form the causal basis of criminality. 3)The structure of society and the relative degree of social organization or social disorganization are important factors contributing to criminal behavior. Characteristics of Sociological Theories

39. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 39 In the 1920s, Park and Burgess mapped Chicago based on the city’s social characteristics. They developed the Concentric Zone Theory.  Concentric zones are likened to a bull’s eye with the center of the city being the target. Shaw and McKay related this theory to crime.  Crime increased as one moved towards center of the city, with the highest crime rates in the “zone of transition,” where there was a lot of poverty, illiteracy, lack of schooling, unemployment, and illegitimacy (social disorganization).  Social disorganization leads to crime. Social Ecology Theory

40. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 40 Anomie Theory Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) introduced the term anomie (normlessness) in the late 1800s. Robert K. Merton (1910–2003) defined anomie as a disjuncture between societal goals and legitimate means. He developed a typology of adaptations: Conformist—accepts goals and means (law abiding) Innovator—accepts goals, rejects means (property/white-collar offenses) Retreatest—rejects both goals and means (addiction/victimless crimes) Ritualist—rejects goals, accepts means (repetitive/mundane lifestyle) Rebel—rejects goals and means and substitutes his own goals and means (political crime)

41. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 41  Cohen (b. 1918)—reaction formation, lower class youth’s rejection of middle class values, leads to the development of gangs and reinforces the subculture.  Miller—Lower class priority concerns of trouble, toughness, excitement, smartness, fate, and autonomy lead to crime. Subcultural Theory

42. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 42  Cloward and Ohlin proposed that an illegitimate opportunity structure allows delinquent youths to achieve success outside of legitimate ways.  Wolfgang and Ferracuti coined the term “subculture of violence” after examining homicide rates in Philadelphia in the 1950s.  Here, violence is a traditional, and often accepted, method of dispute resolution. Subcultural Theory

43. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 43 Social programs are instituted to change cultural conditions and societal arrangements that lead people into crime. Social Policy and Sociological Theories

44. 44 2009 Pearson Education, Inc Social Process Theories

45. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 45 Basic Assumptions  They highlight the role played by weakened self-esteem and the lack of meaningful social roles in crime causation.  Relationship of individual to social group is stressed as underlying cause of behavior. Characteristics of Social Process Theories

46. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 46 Edwin Sutherland (1883-1950), in his third edition of Principles of Criminology (1939), viewed crime as a product of socialization. Crime is learned. It is learned by the same principles that guide learning of law abiding behavior of conformists. Differential Association

47. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 47 1.Criminal behavior is learned.Criminal behavior is learned. 2.Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. 3.The principle part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.The principle part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. 4.When criminal behavior is learned, it includes a) techniques of committing the crime, and b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.When criminal behavior is learned, it includes a) techniques of committing the crime, and b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. 5.The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable. 6.A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violations of the law over definitions unfavorable to violations of the law.A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violations of the law over definitions unfavorable to violations of the law. 7.Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. 8.The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anticriminal patterns involves all the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anticriminal patterns involves all the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. 9.While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values since noncriminal behavior is an expression of those same needs and values.While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values since noncriminal behavior is an expression of those same needs and values. Principles of Differential Association

48. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 48 Social Learning Theory: … a perspective that says people learn how to behave from others whom they have the opportunity to observe. Social Process Theories

49. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 49 Ronald L. Akers and Robert L. Burgess applied learning theory constructs to the theory of differential association. Their theory of differential reinforcement is called social learning theory.  Primary learning takes place through operant conditioning.  People learn how to behave by modeling themselves after other whom they have the opportunity to observe. Social Learning Theory

50. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 50 Restraint theories focus on Constraints—those forces that keep people from committing crimes.  Contrasts other theories that look to why people commit crimes. Restraint Theories

51. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 51 One restraint theory, offered by Walter Reckless (1899-1988) is containment theory. Containment—aspects of social bond and personality that prevent individuals from committing crime. There are two types: 1. Outer—elements outside of individual (friends, law, family, social position) control behavior. 2. Inner—those elements psychological in nature (conscience, positive self-image, tolerance) control behavior. Containment Theory

52. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 52 Travis Hirschi in Causes of Delinquency (1969) wrote that the stronger one’s social bond the less likely the individual would engage in delinquency. Elements of the social bond include: 1.Attachment (to others) 2.Commitment (to appropriate lifestyles) 3.Involvement (in conventional values) 4.Belief (in correctness of rules of society) Social Control Theory

53. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 53 In Techniques of Neutralization (1957), Gresham Sykes and David Matza put forth a list of escalating techniques of neutralization that allow a person to commit a delinquent act. The techniques are: 1.Denial of responsibility 2.Denial of injury 3.Denial of victim 4.Condemnation of condemners 5.Appeal to higher loyalties Techniques of Neutralization

54. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 54 Labeling theory sees continued crime as a consequence of the limited opportunities for acceptable behavior that follow from the negative responses of society for those defined as offenders. In 1963, Howard Becker suggested that: a.Criminality is not a quality inherent in the act or the person. b.Crime results from social definition through law of unacceptable behavior. c.Deviance is “created” by society. Labeling Theory

55. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 55 Social development theories represent an integrated view of human development that points to the process of interaction among and between individuals and society as the root cause of criminal behavior. An example, put forth in 1993 by Sampson and Laub, is the life course perspective. Crime is linked to turning points in one’s life.  Turning points are transitional periods during which one can either walk toward or away from crime. The Life Course Perspective

56. 56 2009 Pearson Education, Inc Conflict Theories

57. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 57 Conflict perspective: maintains that crime is the natural consequence of economic and other social inequities. Key elements are: 1.Society is composed of diverse social groups. 2.Conflict among groups is unavoidable because of differing interests and differing values. 3.Group conflict centers on exercise of political power. 4.Laws further the interests of the lawmakers. Characteristics of Conflict Theory

58. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 58 Radical criminology sees crime as produced by the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and other resources.  Poverty and discrimination leads to frustration and pent-up hostilities expressed through crime. Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) assumed lower classes are always exploited by the “owners” of the means of production.  “False class consciousness” – the poor are trained to believe that capitalism is in their best interest. Radical Criminology

59. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 59 Peacemaking criminology holds that crime control agencies and citizens should work together to alleviate social problems and human suffering, and thereby reduce crime.  Rooted in Christian and eastern philosophies.  Social control must also focus on victims and victimization.  Popularized by Richard Quinney and Hal Pepinsky. Peacemaking Criminology

60. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 60 Many suggest that the only real way to produce change is through revolution. Modern thinkers believe that we need a middle- of-the-road solution, as revolution is unlikely to occur in the U.S. Such solutions include:  Increasing job opportunities  Reducing prison overcrowding  Prosecuting corporate crimes  Restructuring the bail system  Focus on injustices and inequality  Promoting community corrections Social Policy and Conflict Theories

61. 61 2009 Pearson Education, Inc Emergent Theories New and Developing Perspectives

62. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 62 Feminist criminology emphasizes gender issues and seeks to develop appreciation of the role of women in crime causation, victimization, and crime control.  Rita Simon—Women and Crime (1975) and Freda Adler—Sisters in Crime (1975)  Explain differences in gender crime rates as due primarily to socialization rather than biology  Kathleen Daly and Meda Chesney-Lind  Emphasizes need for a “gender-aware” criminology Feminist Criminology

63. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 63 Constitutive criminology studies the process by which people create an ideology of crime that sustains the notion of crime as a concrete reality.  George Herbert Mead’s symbolic interaction theory  William Thomas  An act’s significance depends on the intentions behind it and the situation in which it is interpreted.  Stuart Henry and Dragan Milovanovic  People shape their world while also being shaped by it. Constitutive Criminology

64. CRIMINAL JUSTICE TODAY, 10E© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc by Dr. Frank Schmalleger Pearson Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 64 Postmodern Criminology Postmodern criminology includes a wide variety of recent, novel perspectives of crime that build upon the belief that past approaches fail to realistically assess the true causes of crime and provide workable solutions to crime. Examples:  Chaos analysis  Discourse analysis  Topology theory  Critical theory  Realist criminology  Constitutive theory  Anarchic criminology