1. BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MEMORY

2. Biological Basis of Memory
Karl Lashley searched for a localized memory trace or engram
Believed that memory was localized – specific memory stored in a specific area.
Removed parts of rat’s cerebral cortex but found no one area contained the memory of the maze
Found that maze-learning in rats was distributed throughout the brain
Discovering Psy2e Photo p. 227

3. Memory and the Brain
Play “The Locus of Learning and Memory” (6:28) Module #16 from The Brain: Teaching Modules (2nd edition).
Watch first 3 minutes on Lashley’s Experiment and if time view Penfield’s experiment & why it was flawed.

4. Biological Basis of Memory
Thought that cerebellum was changed after classically conditioning a rabbit to blink to a tone. He was right!
Removing this area caused the rabbit to no longer blink to a tone but only reflexively. Shows localized memory.
This did not work for complex behaviors like running a maze, which seem to be distributed
Discovering Psy2e Photo p. 227
Richard Thompson
Reflexive Behaviors are localized in the cerebellum

5. Biological Basis of Memory
fMRI shows that when people memorized the label “dog” with the sound of a bark the auditory cortex activated when they retrieved it.
Those memorized the label “dog” to a picture activated their visual cortex when they retrieved it.
Retrieving a memory reactivates the sensory area of the cortex that was involved in the initial perception of the event. (See images on pg. 268)

6. New Memories in a Snail
Aplysia—a sea snail was used to study how memories can change neurons
Eric Kandel

7. Kandel’s Sea Snail Experiment
Eric Kandel – studied neural changes that took place in Aplysia, a sea snail. Click HERE to view it (4 min)
Squirted it with water followed by an electric shock that classically conditioned it to withdrawal its gills next time it was squirted.
This changed the three neuron circuit in the snail.
Function of the neuron changed with increase in the amount of the neurotransmitter produced by the neuron.
Structure of the neuron changed with the number of interconnecting dendrites and axon terminals increasing allowing for more communication points (synapses).

8. Long-Term Potentiation
Two possible changes should occur in the neurons in forming memories.
Functioning of neurons in the brain could change
Structure of the neurons could change.
These increase the neuron’s firing potential
Kandel’s experiment shows this.
Believed to be the neural basis of learning and memory

9. Severe Memory Loss Amnesia—severe memory loss 3 Major Types:
Retrograde Amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia
Infantile Amnesia

10. Retrograde amnesia
Retrograde amnesia—inability to remember PAST episodic information; common after head injury;
Reason for this is it may disrupt:
Memory Consolidation – gradual, physical process of converting a long-term memory to a stable and enduring memory code.
If disturbed before the process is complete, memory could be lost.
Sleep seems to be when most memory consolidation occurs

11. Anterograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia—inability to form NEW memories; related to hippocampus damage
Shows that hippocampus must be used in the encoding of new memories and transferring them from STM to LTM.
Implicit memories like procedural memories do still occur showing that these may not involve the hippocampus but knowing they are there (explicit memory) does not work showing the hippocampus is involved in these.

12. Infantile Amnesia
Infantile Amnesia – Inability to recall events from the first few years of life.
Possible Reasons for this:
Too many differences between the world of an infant and ours for us to be able to make connections or retrieval cues to retrieve them (encoding specificity principle).
Hippocampus is still developing so they cannot form new LTM but they can make procedural memories.
One reason adults typically recall little of their first three years of life is that during infancy they were unable to verbally label most of their experiences (semantically encode the info).

13. Brain Structures Involved in Memory
Bloom, Nelson, and Lazerson, Brain, Mind, and Behavior
Figure 10.06

14. Emotions & the Amygdala
Amygdala may help in formation of emotional memories.
Watch Enhancing Memory (7:50) to see how research is showing this. Click below.

15. Evidence for Separate Implicit/Explicit Systems
Neurophysiological evidence
Patient H.M. (Henry Gustav Molaison)
life-threatening seizures originating in temporal lobe
surgically removed portions of temporal lobe
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory; H.M.

16. Temporal Lobe Includes:
hippocampus
Amygdala
Verbal information is stored in the left hippocampus and
Visual designs are stored in the right hippocampus
Key words: temporal lobe; amygdala; hippocampus

17. Patient H.M. Click HERE for a video on H.M. (10 Min)
Surgery was effective in reducing seizures
BUT, had other side effects as well
Can remember explicit memories acquired before the surgery
e.g., old addresses, normal vocabulary
Cannot form NEW explicit memories
e.g., remembering the name of someone he met 30 minutes prior
cannot name new world leaders or performers
can recognize a picture of himself from before his surgery but not from after and doesn’t recognize himself in a mirror
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory; H.M.

18. Patient H.M. H.M. has severe explicit / declarative memory disorder
H.M. is almost normal on procedural or implicit memory tasks including priming, classical conditioning, and learning motor skills
When given the same logical puzzle to solve for several days in a row, H. M. was able to solve the puzzle more quickly each day.
This shows that explicit memory depends upon the temporal lobes and implicit does not
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory; H.M.

19. Patient H.M. Summary
Temporal lobe damage led to deficits in explicit, but not implicit memory
H.M. had both episodic and semantic memory deficits
Damage to the hippocampus alone produces episodic, but not semantic memory deficits
Why did H.M. show both types of explicit memory deficits?
He had damage not only to hippocampus, but to other structures as well
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory; H.M.; episodic memory; semantic memory; temporal lobe; hippocampus

20. Memory and the Hippocampus
Damage to the hippocampus would result in the inability to form new explicit memories, but the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories
To view someone with this damage checkout the video by clicking on it (7:38)

21. Memory and the Hippocampus

22. Hippocampus and Memory
Play “Living with Amnesia: The Hippocampus and Memory” (10:35) Module #18 from The Brain: Teaching Modules (2nd edition).
Watch if Time Allows.

23. Aging and Memory
Studies have found that the ability to recall new information, unaided by clues, declines with age,
But the ability to recognize new information, as in a multiple-choice question, does not.
Elderly may need more time to retrieve memories but still can do as well as a young person.

24. Culture & Memory
Levy and Langer study of cultural views of aging show that society’s expectation that older people will have poorer memories can be a self-fulfilling prophecy.
In cultures where that is not believed (Asia) the elderly show memories just as good as the young.

25. Think your memory is something special?