1. Unit 3
Animal Physiology

2. Circulation and Gas Exchange
The Heart
The heart is a muscular organ that is divided into 4 chambers:- 2 atria and 2 ventricles. (left and right)
The left ventricle wall is very thick and muscular since it has to pump blood all round the body.
The right ventricle wall is less thick since it just pumps blood to the lungs.

3. The heart has 4 heart valves.
2 of the valves are between the atria and ventricles. On the left hand side is the bicuspid valve. On the right hand side is the tricuspid valve.
The 2 other heart valves are at the origins of the pulmonary artery and the aorta – these are the semi-lunar valves.
The valves ensure that blood is only able to flow in one direction. They prevent backflow of blood.

4. aorta Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein Vena cava
Semi lunar valves
aorta
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary vein
Vena cava
Left atrium
Right atrium
Bicuspid
valve
Tricuspid
valve
Right ventricle
Left ventricle

5. Since the heart wall is made of muscle it must get its own supply of oxygenated blood.
The heart is supplied by the coronary arteries. (a branch of the aorta).
If a coronary artery becomes blocked, the heart does not get a supply of oxygen and this may result in death of the tissue.

6. Path of Blood Flow Through the Heart
Blood arrives at the heart via the vena cava.
This blood is low in oxygen (deoxygenated.)
From the vena cava it enters the right atrium then the right ventricle.
It exits the heart by the pulmonary artery where it is carried to the lungs to pick up oxygen.
The blood becomes oxygenated.
From the lungs it goes back to the heart via the pulmonary vein.
It enters the left atrium, then the left ventricle.
The blood leaves the heart in the aorta where it is delivered to the rest of the body.

7. Head & Body Vena cava Left atrium Left ventricle Head & Body Aorta
Right atrium
Pulmonary artery
Right ventricle
Lungs
Pulmonary vein
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Head & Body
Aorta

8. aorta Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein Vena cava
Semi lunar valves
aorta
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary vein
Vena cava
Left atrium
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Left ventricle

9. Circulation & Blood Vessels
ARTERIES
Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
Arteries carry oxygenated blood to organs and tissues – (except the pulmonary artery)
Where an artery lies just under the skin the beating of the heart can be felt. Each push of blood is called a pulse.
Artery walls are very thick and muscular since they have to withstand blood travelling at high pressure.

10. VEINS
Veins carry blood to the heart
Veins carry deoxygenated blood from organs and tissues (except the pulmonary vein)
Veins have valves present to stop the blood flowing backwards.

11. CAPILLARIES
Arteries split into a network of tiny thin walled vessels called capillaries.
Capillaries are 1 cell thick, they are long, narrow and thin to provide a large surface area.
Capillaries carry food and oxygen to every cell.
Gaseous exchange happens at each cell (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out) and waste is removed back into the blood.
Capillaries will reunite to form
larger vessels and then into veins.

13. Blood leaves the heart in arteries, flows through capillaries and returns to the heart in veins

14. Circulation Complete the blood vessels cut out sheet.
You need to know the difference between arteries, veins and capillaries and the structural adaptations related to their function.
You need to know the next diagram too – and the names and positions of these vessels;
Pulmonary artery; pulmonary vein; aorta, vena cava; hepatic vein; mesenteric artery; hepatic portal vein; renal artery and renal vein.
(You will need to add in the mesenteric artery to your diagram. You can colour the oxygenated blood red and deoxygenated blood blue)

15. Mesenteric artery
gut
Deoxygenated blood
Oxygenated blood

16. The Lungs
The lungs are spongy/hard organs enclosed in the _______________.
The _______________ (windpipe) branches into two ___________ each of which enter one lung.
The _______________ split into smaller and smaller tubes called _______________.
The function of the cartilage is to _______________.
The bronchioles end in very thin air sacs called __________.

17. Trachea (lined with rings of cartilage)
Nasal cavity
mouth
rib
larynx
Trachea (lined with rings of cartilage)
Intercostal muscles
Bronchus
Bronchioles
Alveoli (air sacs)
heart
diaphragm

18. Gas Exchange in the Alveoli
The alveoli (air sacs) are lined with moisture.
Oxygen dissolves in this moisture and diffuses into the blood.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood back into the alveoli.

20. Using a red pencil, colour in on the diagrams which blood vessels contain oxygen.
Using a blue pencil, colour in on the diagram which blood vessels contain carbon dioxide.
For example…. See next slide

22. Features of alveoli which allow efficient gas exchange.
Large surface area
Thin walls
Moist surfaces
Good blood supply
These features of the alveoli ensure efficient gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood stream

23. The letters give the running order ….check your answers
BEGINNINGS
ENDINGS
E Oxygen diffuses into the
sacs because there is a higher CO2 concentration in the blood.
B The air sacs are thin
air sacs, they make a very large surface area.
D The air sacs have many
which is moist so that gases can dissolve.
C Because there are so many
to let gases through easily
A The air sac is lined with mucus
blood capillaries in close contact with them
F Carbon dioxide diffuses into
the air
blood because there is a higher O2 concentration in the air sacs.
The letters give the running order ….check your answers

24. BEGINNINGS ENDINGS E Oxygen diffuses into the 1
sacs because there is a higher CO2 concentration in the blood. 6
B The air sacs are thin
air sacs, they make a very large surface area. 4
D The air sacs have many
which is moist so that gases can dissolve. 5
C Because there are so many
to let gases through easily 2
A The air sac is lined with mucus 5
blood capillaries in close contact with them 3
F Carbon dioxide diffuses into
the air
blood because there is a higher O2 concentration in the air sacs. 1

25. Features of a capillary network which allow efficient gas exchange in tissues
They have a large surface area.
They are in close contact with the body cells.
They have thin walls.
These properties of the capillary network allow efficient gas exchange to occur between the blood stream and the body cells.

26. THE BLOOD

27. Composition of the Blood
Blood contains:-
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Plasma
Platelets

28. Oxygen is carried in the red blood cells.
Carbon dioxide is carried in the plasma.
The concentration of carbon dioxide carried in the plasma is limited since it combines with water to form an acid.
Too much acid in the blood would lead to problems since blood functions best between pH 7.36 and 7.44.
Most carbon dioxide is transported in blood plasma as bicarbonate ions. (Some CO2 is carried in the red blood cells attached to other molecules)

29. Soluble food such as glucose and amino acids are also transported dissolved in the plasma.

30. Function of Haemoglobin
·  Haemoglobin is found in red blood cells.
· In high oxygen concentrations haemoglobin combines readily with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin
· This happens in the lungs
· In low oxygen concentrations, oxyhaemoglobin releases its oxygen to the body cells.
· Blood with oxygen is bright red.
· Haemoglobin carries oxygen to the tissues of the body.

31. Colour in the blood high in oxygen red and the blood low in oxygen blue.

33. So:- Associate = to combine with oxygen Dissociate = to release oxygen
Haemoglobin + oxygen oxyhaemoglobin
Association (in lungs)
Dissociation (in tissues)
Associate = to combine with oxygen
Dissociate = to release oxygen

34. White Blood Cells Are less numerous than RBC’s
They contain nuclei, can change shape and squeeze through tiny pores in capillary walls.
They are suited to their function of defending the body since they can reach the site of infection outwith the circulation.
Two types of white blood cell are monocytes and lymphocytes.
lymphocytes
monocytes

35. Phagocytosis
Is the process by which bacteria are engulfed and destroyed by phagocytic cells such as monocytes and macrophages (Macrophages are cells that come from monocytes)
The macrophage will engulf a bacterial cell and then digest it.
During infection, 100’s of monocytes and macrophages migrate to the infected area and engulf many bacteria by phagocytosis. Dead bacteria and these cells often accumulate at a site of injury forming pus!

36. Bacterium giving out chemical
macrophage
Lysosome (structure containing digestive enzymes)
Vacuole forming
Trapped bacterium
Lysosomes move towards and fuse with vacuole
Bacteria being digested by enzymes from lysosomes

37. Immunity and Antibodies
Immunity is an organism’s ability to resist infectious disease.
Phagocytosis is an example of non-specific immune response since it provides general protection against a wide range of micro-organisms.
Antibody production is an example of specific immune response as they are specific to a particular antigen.

38. ANTIGEN ANTIBODY A molecule that is recognised as alien to the
body by the body’s lymphocytes.
ANTIBODY
The presence of an antigen in the body stimulates the
lymphocytes to produce antibodies.
An antibody is a Y-shaped molecule. Each arm has a
receptor site whose shape is specific to a particular antigen.
When an antibody meets its complementary antigen, they combine at
their specific sites like a lock and key and the antigen is rendered
harmless. It will then be engulfed by phagocytosis.

39. Antibody
Receptor sites

40. Antigens meet antibodies
lymphocyte
virus
antigen
Some viral particles become attached to their antigens to lymphocytes
Lymphocytes respond to this antigen by multiplying and producing cells that mass produce a specific type of antibody
Virus gains access to body & multiplies inside the cell
Antigens meet antibodies
Antigens combine with antibodies at receptor sites and become a harmless complex later engulfed by a phagocyte.

41. Primary and Secondary Responses
When a person is infected by a disease-causing organism, the body responds by producing antibodies.
This is the primary response.
Because it takes a while before the antibodies appear, the primary response is often unable to prevent the person from suffering the disease.

42. This time the disease is usually prevented.
If the person survives and are exposed to the same disease-causing antigen in the future, a secondary response happens.
This happens because the body has memory cells which remember the antigen.
This time the disease is usually prevented.
During the secondary response
Antibody production is more rapid
The concentration of antibodies produced reaches a higher level
The higher concentration of antibodies is maintained for a longer time

43. Secondary Response Primary Response
Increasing concentration of antibodies
Secondary Response
Primary Response 10 20 30 40 10 20 30
Time (days)
Some later time in a person’s life (days)
First exposure to antigen
Second exposure to antigen