1. Chapter Eleven Approaches to Instruction

2. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-2 Overview Devising and using objectives The behavioral approach to teaching The cognitive approach to teaching The humanistic approach to teaching The social approach to teaching

3. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-3 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain Knowledge –Remembering previously learned information such as facts, terms, and principles Comprehension –Grasping the meaning of information by putting it into one’s own words Application –Applying knowledge to actual situations

4. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-4 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain Analysis –Breaking down ideas into simpler parts and seeing how the parts relate and are organized Synthesis –Rearranging component ideas into a new whole Evaluation –Making judgments based on internal evidence or external criteria

5. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-5 Taxonomy Categories and Problem Solving

6. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-6 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Affective Domain Receiving (attending) –Willingness to receive or attend Responding –Active participation indicating positive response or acceptance of an idea Valuing –Expressing a belief or attitude about the value or worth of something

7. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-7 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Affective Domain Organization –Organizing various values into an internalized system Characterization by a value or value complex –The value system becomes a way of life

8. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-8 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Psychomotor Domain Perception –Using sense organs to obtain cues needed to guide motor activity Set –Being ready to perform a particular action Guided response –Performing under the guidance of a model Mechanism –Being able to perform a task habitually with some degree of confidence and proficiency

9. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-9 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Psychomotor Domain Complex or overt response –Performing a task with a high degree of proficiency and skill Adaptation –Using previously learned skills to perform new but related tasks Origination –Creating new performances after having developed skills

10. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-10 Mager’s Recommendations for Use of Specific Objectives Describe what you want learners to be doing when demonstrating achievement and indicate how you will know they are doing it. In your description, identify and name the behavioral act that indicates achievement, define the conditions under which the behavior is to occur, and state the criterion of acceptable performance. Write a separate objective for each learning performance.

11. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-11 Gronlund’s Recommendations for Use of General Objectives Examine what is to be learned with reference to lists of objectives. Use such lists to formulate general objectives of instruction that describe types of behavior students should exhibit. Under each general instructional objective, list up to five specific learning outcomes that provide a representative sample of what students should be able to do when they have achieved the general objective.

12. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-12 Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Objectives Objectives seem to work best when students are aware of them, treat them as directions to learn specific sections of material, and feel they will aid learning. Objectives seem to work best when they are clearly written and the learning task is neither too difficult nor too easy. Students of average ability seem to profit more from being given objectives than do students of higher or lower ability. Objectives lead to an improvement in intentional learning but to a decline in incidental learning.

13. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-13 The Behavioral Approach to Teaching: Direct Instruction Focusing almost all classroom activity on learning basic academic knowledge and skills. Having the teacher make all instructional decisions. Keeping students working productively toward learning new academic knowledge and skills as much as possible. Maintaining a positive classroom climate by emphasizing positive reinforcement and avoiding the use of aversive consequences.

14. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-14 Components of Direct Instruction Orientation –Introduction and overview of the lesson Presentation –Explaining and demonstrating new material Structured practice –Teacher leads class through problem Guided practice –Students work on problems with teacher assistance Independent practice –Students practice on their own

15. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-15 Using Technology to Support Behavioral Approaches Drill-and-practice CBI tools Integrated learning systems Multimedia to embellish a lecture

16. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-16 The Cognitive Approach to Teaching: Facilitating Meaningful & Self-Directed Learning Communicate clear goals Use attention-getting devices Emphasize organization and meaningfulness Present information in learnable amounts and over realistic time periods Facilitate encoding of information into long- term memory Practice what you preach

17. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-17 The Cognitive Approach to Teaching: Constructivism Provide scaffolded instruction within the zone of proximal development (ZPD) Provide opportunities for learning by discovery Foster multiple viewpoints Emphasize relevant problems and tasks Encourage students to become self- directed learners

18. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-18 Using Technology to Support Cognitive Approaches Helping students process information Discovery and exploratory environments Guided learning Problem- and project-based learning Situated learning

19. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-19 The Humanistic Approach to Teaching: Student-Centered Instruction The humanistic approach pays particular attention to the role of noncognitive variables in learning; specifically, students’ needs, emotions, values, and self- perceptions. Maslow: Let Children Grow Rogers: Learner-Centered Education Combs: The Teacher as Facilitator

20. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-20 The Humanistic Model Defining the helping situation Exploring the problem Developing insight Planning and decision making Integration

21. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-21 Using Technology to Support Humanistic Approaches Learner-centered process Helping students meaningfully construct and represent knowledge Create challenging and novel learning environments that help students link new information to old Achieve complex learning goals Build thinking and reasoning strategies

22. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-22 The Social Approach to Teaching: Teaching Students How to Learn from Each Other Competitive structures –Structures in which one’s grade is determined by how well everyone else in the group performs Individualistic structures –Structures that are characterized by students working alone and earning rewards solely on the quality of their own efforts Cooperative structures –Structures that are characterized by students working together to accomplish shared goals

23. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-23 Elements of Cooperative Learning Group heterogeneity Group goals/positive interdependence Promotive interaction Individual accountability Interpersonal skills Equal opportunities for success Team competition

24. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-24 Why Does Cooperative Learning Work? Motivational effect Cognitive-developmental effect Cognitive elaboration effect

25. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11-25 Using Technology to Support Social Approaches Social constructivist learning Cooperative and collaborative learning