1. Chapter 5: Reading and Evaluating Arguments
Academic Reading
By Kathleen T. McWhorter
(4th Edition)
Powerpoint by Gretchen Starks-Martin
St. Cloud State University, Minnesota

2. Learning Objectives: To recognize the elements of an argument
To recognize types of arguments
To evaluate arguments
To recognize errors in logical reasoning

3. An argument presents logical reasons
and evidence to support a viewpoint

4. Parts of an Argument
ISSUE - problem or controversy about which people disagree
CLAIM - the position on the issue
SUPPORT - reasons and evidence that the claim is reasonable and should be accepted
REFUTATION - opposing viewpoints

5. Types of Claims
CLAIM OF FACT - statement that can be proven or verified by observation or research
“Within ten years, destruction of rain forests will cause hundreds of plant and animal species to become extinct.”

6. Types of Claims
CLAIM OF VALUE - states that one thing or idea is better or more desirable than another.
“Requiring community service in high school will produce more community-aware graduates.”

7. Types of Claims
CLAIM OF POLICY - suggests what should or ought to be done to solve a problem.
“To reduce school violence, more gun and metal detectors should be installed in public schools.”

8. Types of Support REASON - a general statement that supports a claim.
EVIDENCE - consists of facts, statistics, experiences, comparisons, and examples that show why the claim is valid.
EMOTIONAL APPEALS - ideas that are targeted toward needs or values that readers are likely to care about.

9. Inductive and Deductive Arguments
INDUCTIVE - reaches a general conclusion from observed specifics.
“By observing the performance of a large number of athletes, you could conclude that athletes possess physical stamina.”

10. Inductive and Deductive Arguments
DEDUCTIVE - begins with a major premise and moves toward a more specific statement or minor premise.
“Athletes possess physical stamina. Because Anthony is an athlete, he must possess physical stamina.”

11. Strategies for Reading an Argument
What does the title suggest? Preview!
Who is the author, and what are his or her qualifications?
What is the date of publication?
What do I already know about the issue?
Think Before You Read

12. Strategies for Reading an Argument
Read once for an initial impression.
Read the argument several more times.
Annotate as you read.
Highlight key terms.
Diagram or map to analyze structure.
Read Actively

13. Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
Evaluate Types of Evidence - Is it sufficient to support the claim?
Personal Experience - may be biased, so do not accept it
Examples - should not be used by themselves

14. Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
Statistics - can be misused, manipulated or misinterpreted.
Comparisons and Analogies - reliability depends on how closely they correspond to the situation.
Relevancy and Sufficiency of Evidence - is there enough of the right kind to support the claim?

15. Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
Definition of Terms - should be carefully defined and used consistently
Cause-Effect Relationships - evidence that the relationship exists should be present
Implied or Stated Value System - are they consistent with your personal value system?

16. Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
Recognizing and Refuting Opposing Viewpoints
Question the accuracy, relevancy or sufficiency of the opponent’s evidence.
Does the author address opposing viewpoints clearly and fairly?
Does the author refute the opposing viewpoint with logic and relevant evidence?

17. Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
Unfair Emotional Appeals
Emotionally Charged or Biased Language
False Authority
athletes endorsing underwear
movie stars selling shampoo
Association
a car being named a Cougar to remind you of a sleek animal
a cigarette advertisement featuring a scenic waterfall

18. Strategies for Evaluating Arguments
Unfair Emotional Appeals
Appeal to “Common Folk”
an ad showing a product being used in an average household
a politician suggesting he is like everyone else
Ad Hominem - attack on the person rather than his/her viewpoint
“Join the Crowd” Appeal or Bandwagon

19. What emotional appeal is being used?
Come early so you won’t have to stand in line – because everyone knows you can make a deal with Dave and save.
As a test pilot, Susan Gibbs knows performance. “That’s why I drive a Mustang,” she says.
Olson’s pizzas are lower in fat and calories. Other pizza makers don’t care about your health.

20. Emotional appeals continued…
“We can work magic with your children,” says Eileen of Eileen’s Day Care. “Call upon us, and your children will be happy you did.”
Liberty Bell Airlines flies anywhere in this great land, from sea to shining sea.
As a young man, Candidate Alan Wilson learned what it means to work hard by spending long hours lifting boxes and sweeping floors working in a department store.

21. Errors in Logical Reasoning commonly called logical fallacies invalidate the argument or render argument flawed
Circular Reasoning/Begging the Question
“Female police officers should not be sent to crime scenes because apprehending criminals is a man’s job.”
Hasty Generalization - conclusion derived from insufficient evidence
“Because one apple is sour, all of them in the bowl must be sour.”

22. Errors in Logical Reasoning
Non Sequitur (“It Does Not Follow”)
“Because my doctor is young, I’m sure she’ll be a good doctor.”
False Cause
“Because I opened the umbrella when I tripped on the sidewalk, the umbrella must have caused me to trip.”
Either-Or Fallacy
“Because of the violence, TV must be either allowed or banned.”

23. For Each Argument: Identify the claim.
Outline the reasons to support the claim.
What types of evidence are used?
Evaluate the adequacy and sufficiency of the evidence.
What emotional appeals are used?
Does the author recognize or refute counter arguments?

24. Comparing the Arguments:
Compare the types of evidence used.
Which argument did you find more convincing? Why?
What further information would be useful in assessing the issue?

25. Read the articles on education and complete the activities following each selection.
“School Boards Doing Little to Close Gap Between Whites, Minorities”
“School Vouchers: The Wrong Choice for Public Education”