1. Pre-Referral Track: Preventing Overrepresentation: Language and Culture Implications Anne H. Charity Hudley, Ph.D. The College of William and Mary Developed for the Virginia Department of Education

2. Thank You For Being Here We face these challenges together and we will create solutions together.

3. What students ask themselves about their school culture and climate Am I safe here? Will I be successful here? Is there something in this for me?

4. Region, Culture, Language, and Education Educational dilemmas due to linguistic / cultural mismatches between School English and non-standardized varieties misbehavior wrong answers reading/writing difficulty

5. Tension in the Language A compromise – A key question: How do we value the home language and build on it while learning standardized English, without demeaning students’ linguistic and cultural backgrounds?

6. Burden of Communication When there is a perceived language barrier, the person with the non-standardized accent is often expected to do more work to help the other person understand

7. When Linguistic and Cultural Mismatches Occur Unequal burden of communication Unequal access to education Prejudice and bias Unequal access to services

8. Psychological Effects of Unequal Burden of Communication Trying even harder to be understood Feeling like it’s “my fault” Shame/embarra ssment Raising my voice Feeling offended Feeling devalued Withdrawing/dis engaging Silence

9. School English “School English” may be unfamiliar to many students, regardless of background, dialect, or language variety Wrong answers and inappropriate behavior might arise because a child doesn’t understand what s/he is being asked or told, rather than because s/he doesn’t know the answer or is disobedient

10. Educational Outcomes of Linguistic and Cultural Mismatches in Schools The language of school and schooling may be unfamiliar to many students Wrong answers when a student doesn’t understand a question Misbehavior when a student doesn’t understand a direction

11. Educational Outcomes of Linguistic and Cultural Mismatches in Schools May be characterized as impolite, uncooperative May be called on less often in class May receive lower grades, fewer recommendation letters, less encouragement

12. Educational Outcomes of Linguistic and Cultural Mismatches in Schools May be referred for speech/language services or special education May face increased disciplinary action, often due to “tone” or attitude

13. Disproportionate number of students receive special education services, are suspended, and are reported for disciplinary actions that were extreme for the behavioral problems Particularly African-American and Latino children Communication and Discipline

14. Implications for Behavior Other frequently misunderstood student behaviors include not making eye contact, shrugging one’s shoulders Such differences are often culturally mediated When behaviors co‐occur, teachers’ and tutors’ misimpressions may be intensified

15. Right of response for punishment Repeated punishment decreases perception of self- worth and creates identity conflict Communication and Discipline

16. Classroom Behavior Strategy Have you ever seen a student be accused of disrespect and then respond that they were not being disrespectful? What was taken as disrespect: – Intonation? – Lack of eye contact? – Shrugging shoulders?

17. Lexical issues: e.g. head of the line vs. front of the line Grammatical issues: e.g. direct vs. implied commands Time conceptualization: e.g. when to begin an assignment Communication and Discipline

18. The Case for Learning Language Features Educators who want to tackle linguistic mismatches in their classroom need a clear understanding of the systematic differences between non-standardized English and standardized English to do so

19. The Case for Learning Language Features How can educators obtain information about how linguistic forms differ? Sociolinguistic materials that are geared toward educators that include language features

20. Phonological (Pronunciation) Features of Language Variation 1.* ask/aks alternation 2.* The consonant /r/ can sound more like a vowel. Ex: in hurry, bird, four, father 3.* A "long i" can sound like ah Ex: oil and all may rhyme *features found in multiple varieties of English

21. Phonological (Pronunciation) Features of Language Variation 4.* A "short e" sounds like "short i" before n/m/ng Ex: pen sounds like pin 5.* Stress can shift from the second to the first syllable Ex: POlice, Umbrella 6.* Final consonant clusters may be reduced Ex: find sounds like fine, cold sounds like code *features found in multiple varieties of English

22. Phonological (Pronunciation) Features of Language Variation 7.* A th sound can be /d/, /t/, /s/, /z/, /f/, or /v/ Ex: with-whiff, with-wit, and they-day can be homophones 8.* /s/ can become /d/ before /n/ or /m/ Ex: isn't --> idn’t, wasn't --> wadn’t *features found in multiple varieties of English

23. Phonological (Pronunciation) Features of Language Variation 9.Final /m/ and /n/ can sound like nasal vowels Ex: in ran 10.A final consonant may not be produced Ex: five and fine sound like fie 11.Final voiced stop consonants can be devoiced Ex: bad sounds like bat or ba’ *features found in multiple varieties of English

24. Phonological (Pronunciation) Features of Language Variation 12. A yu vowel can become oo after a consonant Ex: computer --> compooter 13./t/ can become /k/ in a /str- / cluster Ex: stream sounds like scream *features found in multiple varieties of English

25. Grammatical Features of Language Variation 1.* Negative concord Ex: She don't know nothing. Didn't nobody see it. It ain't nobody can't get in no trouble here. 2.* Irregular verbs may be regularized when marking tense Ex: I seened/seent her. *features found in multiple varieties of English

26. Grammatical Features of Language Variation 3.* The word done may be used to mark past tense Ex: He done failed the test. 4.* The word ain't may be used as an auxiliary verb or copula Ex: I ain't seen her. He ain't shy. *features found in multiple varieties of English

27. Grammatical Features of Language Variation 5.* The word had may be used to mark the simple past tense Ex: What had happened was 6.* Double modals may be used Ex: I might could have done that. *features found in multiple varieties of English

28. Grammatical Features of Language Variation 7.Subject-verb case/number agreement of SE is not required Ex: She weren't there. They is coming. 8.A plural, possessive, or present-tense-singular /s/ may be unmarked Ex: my mama house, fifty cent He talk too much. *features found in multiple varieties of English

29. Grammatical Features of Language Variation 9.A copula (linking "be" verb) can be deleted rather than contracted Ex: She ugly. He crazy. 10.Stressed BIN may be used Ex: I BIN finished my homework. *features found in multiple varieties of English

30. Grammatical Features of Language Variation 11.Habitual BE may be used Ex: He be talking all the time. 12.Hypercorrection Ex: I sended it. I hadded to go to the store. *features found in multiple varieties of English

31. Intonation: Implications for Students Differences in intonation affect how students are perceived by teachers and peers, because intonation is tied to notions of politeness, friendliness, and enthusiasm

32. Implications for Behavior African‐American males might have less melodic variation in their voices, in contrast to white females

33. Intonation: Implications for Students Student A: Why am I taking this test. Student B: Why am I taking this test? What tones of voice make students sound polite? Respectful? Curious? Enthusiastic? What about bored? Withdrawn? Disengaged? Disrespectful? Non- compliant? Angry?

34. The topics are related by a common theme, though this relationship may not be made explicit to the listener The topics may not be presented in a linear way with a clear beginning, middle, and end Discourse Features: Topic-Associating Storytelling

35. This style differs from the single topic narrative style that is considered normative in standardized English The normative style is expected in school settings and in assessments of “kindergarten readiness” (Reid & Valle 2004) – Reid, K., & Valle, J. W. (2004). The discursive practice of learning disability: Implications for instruction and parent-school relations. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(6), 466–481. Discourse Features: Topic-Associating Storytelling

36. 1.I live on Green Street 2.its a nice place 3.I got a- my auntie lives up there 4.I was gonna go to my- another school 5.this year I ’ m going to a different new school 6.so I might be happy there Topic-Associating Narrative: 8-year-old Girl

37. 7.but about my house 8.I just love being at my house 9.my cousins come over to play with me 10.and sleep over sometimes 11.sometimes I have slumber parties 12.and then in the morning sometimes my mother takes us- my grandpa take us to the park Topic-Associating Narrative: 8-year-old Girl

38. 13.get us Mcdonald ’ s or ummm all of that 14.sometimes he take us to the zoo 15.and see all the animals 16.it was fun at the zoo 17.I saw the animals, bears 18.it was great! Topic-Associating Narrative: 8-year-old Girl

39. Discourse Features: Topic-Associating Storytelling Topic-associating style of storytelling is perceived negatively when it is inconsistent with what educators expect.

40. Discourse Features: Topic-Associating Storytelling Educators who did not understand this style: Were more likely to interrupt African American students during circle time Had trouble predicting the direction of their stories Often became frustrated

41. Different Types of Teacher Strategies 1.Strategies for effectively teaching standardized forms to non-standardized- speaking students 2.Strategies for encouraging written and oral participation and expression among non- standardized English-speaking students 3.Strategies for teaching language diversity to all students

42. Strategies for Teaching Standardized Forms Check for patterns in students’ “mistakes” in speech and writing Is there a possibility that “mistakes” are language-based? Can the language patterns be explained to students and contrasted with standardized forms?

43. Strategies for Teaching Standardized Forms Avoid correcting language forms without explanation Frequently corrected students may also avoid speaking in class and learn that form is more important than content in the classroom

44. Classroom Behavior Strategy Teachers can involve their students in defining what respect and disrespect look and sound like, both individually and as a whole class

45. Strategies You Can Use: With Your Students Talk to students about language variation Teach students about “School English” without devaluing home language Help students identify dialect variation in their own speech and their peers’ speech Teach students to vary their language in different situations

46. Thank You! Anne H. Charity Hudley, Ph.D. William and Mary Professor of Community Studies Associate Professor of Education, English, Linguistics, and Africana Studies Director, William & Mary Scholars Program The College of William and Mary Williamsburg, Virginia acharityhudley@wm.edu