1. Culture, Identity and Wellbeing in Children and Young People
Shanti Raman
Area Community Paediatrician-CP
Sydney South West Area Health Service

2. Proposed Structure of Presentation:
Background
Definitions
Hypothesis
Critical theories: identity, acculturation
Culture and child rearing
What needs to be done
Shanti Raman

3. Context Migration: universal phenomenon
Unprecedented internal/ external migration
Australia today: dynamic multicultural society
Globalisation:
Rapid social change
Positive and negative results
Differential effects on the poor
Shanti Raman

4. Why cultural identity and wellbeing?
Global burden of mental health problems: in Australian children 1 in 6
Cultural influences on child development and behaviour
Little scholarly work on cultural identity and links to wellbeing in Australia
Emerging literature about protective role of ethnic identity
Shanti Raman

5. Culture (Frisby, 1992)
As a pattern of living, customs, traditions, values, attitudes
as significant artistic/humanitarian/scientific achievement of the group
as “race consciousness” -guide individual identification
as values, norms of the immediate context (eg of the family, streets, etc)
as refers to superficial differences between macro and micro groups (ie clothing, music, speech)
as refers to outer appearance (“culturally different”)
Shanti Raman

6. Definitions Ethnicity: Race: measure of social exclusion/ inclusion
ethnic self-identity
ascribed ethnic identity
cultural identity
racial identity
Nationality
descent
Race: measure of social exclusion/ inclusion
Racial identity: reactions to societal dynamics of “racial” oppression based on physical characteristics assumed to be racial or genetic in nature
Ethnic identity: if acquisition or maintenance of cultural characteristics (eg language, religion) are defining principles
Helms J, 1997
Shanti Raman

7. Distinctions: racial and ethnic identity
Identity models
Racial: reactions to societal dynamics of “racial” oppression based on physical characteristics assumed to be racial or genetic in nature
Ethnic: if acquisition or maintenance of cultural characteristics (eg language, religion) are defining principles
Helms 1996
Shanti Raman

8. Cultural Identity captures change, uncertainty and ambiguity
incorporates diversity and pluralism
there are a number of different ‘selves’ at different levels and their true psychological integration will lead to better psychological functioning
Incorporates any factor that may account for “differential” patterns of learned or shared behaviour
Shanti Raman

9. Acculturation
Those phenomena which result when groups of individuals with different cultures come into continuous first hand contact; subsequent changes in both groups (Redfield et al, 1936)

10. Acculturation
Phinney 1990, based on Berry et al 1986
Shanti Raman

11. So how does this relate to Childrearing.....
And child development, behaviour?

12. Child Development ….Complex….
Change is constant
Difference is the norm
Context is central
Shanti Raman

13. Culture.....Complex! Change is constant Difference is the norm
Context is central
Shanti Raman

14. Relationship between Culture, Moderator Variables
Nondominant
Cultural
Influences
Dominant Culture Influences
Acculturation
Enculturation
Ethnic/Racial
Identity
Moderator
Variables
Moderator
Variables
Psychological
functioning
Shanti Raman

15. Moderator Variables Type of acculturating group (voluntary or forced)
social characteristics
oppression and legal constraints
racism, prejudice and discrimination
cultural characteristics
language used and fluency
individual characteristics
Shanti Raman

16. Where does that leave us?
Examining children and development in their cultural context…..complex
More problematic definitions: behaviour, disorder, illness, mental health,
Need to consider multiple levels: family, school, peers, society, health services
Shanti Raman

17. Culture and child development
“The biological immaturity of children is the only fact with any certainty that can be said about children’s development.”
Sami Timimi 2005

18. Parenting is a universal, but highly variable behaviour
Feeding
sleeping
discipline and moral reasoning
toilet training
teaching
communicating
giving affection
Shanti Raman

19. It is known that childrearing practices influence the rate and expression of children’s development
Shanti Raman

20. The Milestone Approach
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21. The Age Range Approach: DDST
Shanti Raman

22. Not all children develop according to the commonly used guidelines:
Methodical problems in many studies prevent generalisation of findings
Motor precocity of African infants who sit, crawl and walk at least two months earlier than caucasian infants (Ainsworth, 1977; Geber and Dean, 1957; Capute et al, 1985)
Fine motor precocity but delayed walking of Yucatecan Mexican infants compared to US norms (Solomons and Solomons, 1975)
Advanced attainment of pencil skills in Japanese children compared to British norms (Saida and Miyashita, 1979)
Slight motor delay of Mayan Indian infants compared to US norms (Brazelton, 1972)
Shanti Raman

23. Cultural Differences in Skill and Behaviour
Early motor development
Obedience
Toilet training
Verbal Skills
Temperament
Feeding
Crying
Independence
Learning
Sleeping
Shanti Raman

24. Early Emotional Learning in Infants: A Cross-Cultural Examination
Emotional and interactive behavior learnt in the 1st year of life: much of this learning takes place subcortically
Wide review of published literature: Richman, Miller & Solomon, Le Vine et al, Barr, Brazelton, Sigel
2 widely divergent parental models:
Pedagogic
Child centred
Commons and Miller 1998
Shanti Raman

25. Cultural differences in Parental Goals
Pedagogic: major goals are for children to learn to feel emotionally independent from their parents and to develop interactive and language skills
Child-centred: a model in which the most important goal is protecting the health and survival of the infant
Hallmark study: Le Vine et al 1994, Child care and culture: Lessons from Africa.
Shanti Raman

26. Pedagogic Model
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27. Pedagogic Model (Western model)
Independence and Sleeping Patterns
infants in their own beds and often in their own rooms
lack of co-sleeping
Other Separation
relatively tolerant of other separations: eg infants left with unrelated nonresident babysitters, weekend away
Verbalizing and face to face interaction
parents believe infants are active participants in interactions
they talk to, look at, smile at and interact with infants from birth
emphasis on verbal interaction,  emphasis on physical contact
Consoling
mothers relatively tolerant of infant crying
Shanti Raman

28. Child-Centred Model
Shanti Raman

29. Child Centred Model: largely non-western
Independence and Sleeping Patterns
Co-sleeping and breastfeeding on demand
High physical contact
Consoling
respond rapidly to crying, high rates of holding and touching
increased holding by mothers tends to result in infants who cry less
Verbalizing and face to face interaction
do not typically talk to their infants extensively
do not see infants as capable of communicating or of understanding language
do not engage in stimulating face-to-face interactions
Shanti Raman

30. Cultural differences in Goals of Development
Western world: career, marriage, house, car, TV
Traditional (Aboriginal): achieving full tribal status
Immigrant families: children better off than parents, security, pride in children’s success
Factors influencing
Parents own status
Migration story: refugee, economic, push/pull factors
Religious affiliations
Political environment
Gender
Shanti Raman

31. Contrasting Cultural Practices: Communication
Mainstream
Non-Western
There is an emphasis on nonverbal, observational learning for infants.
There is an emphasis on direct, verbal learning for infants.
Children learn language primarily through eavesdropping and observing. Adults usually do not “talk with” young infants.
Adults have “conversations” with young infants. Adults endow the smallest vocalisations of the baby with meaning and intentionality, and react to them emotionally.
Shanti Raman

32. Contrasting Cultural Practices
Mainstream
Non-Western
During feeding the adult’s primary purpose may be to ensure that the child eats an adequate meal with the minimum amount of waste or mess.
Adults encourage infants to learn self-feeding, even if learning to self- feed means making a mess.
Babies are often in close physical contact with the parents or caregivers. These babies learn to use nonverbal communication such as gestures with their hands or changes in muscle tone or posture to get their needs met.
Babies spend a lot of time by themselves – sleeping in separate rooms, and amusing themselves in playpens – and learn to use verbal communication to get the attention of adults, e.g. calling out to the parent or caregiver out of necessity.
Shanti Raman

33. Contrasting Cultural Practices
Non-Western
Mainstream
Children learn about adult activities by being present as adults go about their jobs and household tasks. Children have responsibility to learn culturally valued behaviours and practices by observing adults.
Children are provided with a scaled- down version of adult activities. During interactions in such activities the parent adjusts speech and actions to the child’s level of skill and understanding.
Toilet training is introduced when the child is quite young. The child learns through being cooperative in a partnership with the parent
Toilet training typically occurs when the child is physically mature and able to talk. The child learns through becoming increasingly dependent
Shanti Raman

34. What about psychological wellbeing?
Shanti Raman

35. ?? Wellbeing: difficult to measure
Meta-analysis of acculturation and adjustment (1992)
No consistent unidirectional effect
SES very important
Low SES groups:  symptoms and conflict with acculturation
High SES groups with ethnic social support networks: high self esteem and coping (eg Asians)
Ethnic social network + SES = sense of efficacy and adaptation
Shanti Raman

36. Ethnic Identity and Wellbeing in Chinese and Turkish teens in Netherlands (Verkuyten 1994)
4 types of identification: dissociative, acculturative (bicultural), assimilative, marginal
Majority were dissociative or acculturative
Turkish: those who identified with own group and biculturals had positive self esteem
Girls who were dissociative had higher self esteem than boys
Chinese: assimilative and marginal group had more negative feelings, correlated with low collectivism scores
Shanti Raman

37. Ethnic Identity in ethnocultural youth and Wellbeing (Roberts, Phinney et al 1999)
5,500 students in high school, Houston: AA, Euro, Hispanics, Chinese, Indian, Vietnamese, PI, mixed
Measures: Ethnic identity, self esteem, coping, optimism, mastery, loneliness, depression
MEIM: overall reliable across diverse groups
High ethnic identity scores: associated with self-esteem, coping, mastery and optimism
Correlation of ethnic salience with MEIM: high
European Americans: lowest scores on ethnic identity
Indian and Pakistani teens highest scores on ethnic identity
Shanti Raman

38. Where does that leave us?
Culture, Identity, Wellbeing, Development…..
complex+++
Comprehensive assessment of effects of culture on children’s wellbeing may not be possible
but worth giving a shot
Need to consider multiple levels: family, school, peers, society, health services
also age, gender and language
Shanti Raman

39. Recommendations: Socio-cultural/political background of immigrant gps
Acknowledge importance of culture in children’s behaviour and development
Understand benefits of cultural capital
Assessment of cultural identity:
language use
cultural practices and pride
Perceived prejudice/discrimination
religious affiliation
socialisation with in-group
Shanti Raman