1. Research Methods Research Topic Selection and Literature
Dr Frantz Clermont (Daryl Essam)
Phone:
Graziano & Raulin (1997)

2. Research Methods
Research Topic Selection: Issues, Approaches & Examples

3. Research Topic/Question Search
The Research Process
A generic prescription
A nonlinear & an interactive search
Example of Initial Steps
Research Topic/Question Search
An iterative process
Originality-related issues & examples
Creative & Critical Thinking Skills

4. The Research Process: A generic prescription
Generic Steps:
1) Choose a Topic  Idea-Generating Phase
2) Research Question  Narrowing-Down Phase
3) Design the Study
4) Collect Data
5) Analyse Data
6) Interpret Data
7) Inform Others

5. Research Topic & Research Question (Pass-1): example
Consider:
Hastings P. K. & Hodge, D. R. (1986), “Religious & moral attitude trends among college students, ”, Social Forces, vol 65:
_____________________________________________________________
Topic: Moral attitudes of college students; periods of conservatism or liberalism
Research Question (Pass-1):
Idea: students  cultural change?
Evidence: How have student attitudes changed from 1948 to 1984?
Fact: Student attitudes have been found to change from 1948 to 1984?
Question: Students are pacesetters of cultural change!

6. Research Question(Pass-2): example
Narrowing Down:
Literature Perspectives (Media Reports & Past Studies)
1980s student attitudes = return to 1950s conservatism
FURTHER QUESTION THUS RAISED BY LITERATURE:
Were religious & moral beliefs also shifted?
Studies on College Students from the 1920s through the 1970s
Shifts observed in strength of student religious beliefs
Parallelled periods of conservatism & liberalism on socio-political issues
HYPOTHESIS: Religious & moral beliefs would become more conservative in the 1980s than in the 1970s!
DESIGN APPROACH:
1948: Hastings’ questionnaire submitted to 205 students at Williams College
1967,1974,1979,1984: Same Questionnaire from 1948 distributed at same college

7. Research Process & Communication Style
Research Topic & Problem  Introduction
Literature Review  Research Context
Design, Instrumentation  Materials & Methods
Data Analyses  Results & Discussion
 Abstract  Title

8. What skills do I need to develop?
What Next?: That is all very well, but how do I go about selecting my own research topic which is to yield original work?
Questions:
What should I do?
What skills do I need to develop?

9. Topic/Question Search: An Iterative Process
Activity:
Make a list of topics of interest/relevance/importance
Consider one or two topics about which you know something
Carry out exploratory/skeletal review of literature relevant to broad area
Consult with supervisor & others => perspectives on worthiness & feasibility

10. Topic/Question Search: Literature Review-1 (exploratory)
Aims:
to assess importance/worthiness of topic(s) of interest
to clarify and justify a specific topic
Involves:
Reading seminal papers, recent review/tutorial papers
Learning about state-of-the-art from papers’ introductions
Learning of “ways forward” from papers’ conclusions
Paying attention to titles, keywords and recurrent citations
Annotating a preliminary bibliography

11. Research Topic/Question Search: In a nutshell!
Initial seed(s):
Supervisor and/or Others
Personal Background, Experiences, Intuition
Literature Review-1: exploratory/skeletal
Consultation with Supervisor and Others
An Iterative Process
An Incessant Search for Originality!

12. What Next?: That is still all very well, but what is meant by Originality and how will I recognise it?
Consider the following analogy:
Research Course  An Expedition
Research Student (U)  The Explorer (E)
E starts with a general idea of an area (e.g., of land) to explore
U starts with a general area of interest

13. Originality: Tools, Techniques & Procedures
E gathers information to firm up why a particular area is to be explored;
U studies the literature, talks to experts and sits on relevant seminars.
E uses collected information to organise procedures, tools, equipment & personnel;
U must include decisions about procedures, tools & techniques, and possibly also people to be involved.
Selection, development and testing of
procedures, tools & techniques could be the basis of originality!

14. Originality: Exploring the unknown
E embarks on a preplanned & previously unexplored route!
U embarks on a major investigation of “something”, which has not before been investigated!
A research problem defined in an unknown or unexplored area
almost readily bears the stamp of originality!

15. Originality: Use of Data
E brings back potentially useful or ground-breaking data, which were not processed on the expedition;
U may be in the same situation and could proceed to use fresh (or even) old data in order to gain new insights into new or existing theories or practices.
Use of Data for the purpose of gaining new or further insights
(theoretical/practical) could also be the basis of originality!

16. Originality: Outcomes
E may bring back range of data from the expected to the unexpected;
U may develop outcomes which may or may not relate closely to the research problem as it was first formulated.
Research outcomes do not need to be new in absolute terms, but only need to be new to a situation!
Unexpected outcomes can cause a reformulation of the initial research problem.
However, this is likely to add considerable strength to the argumentation leading to the amended problem, thereby injecting originality to such outcomes!

17. Research Methods: Research Problem Formulation: Issues, Approaches & Examples
Graziano & Raulin (1997)

18. Research Topic Formulation: A Refresh
Research Frameworks  Research Question  Research Study
Philosophies
Typology
Strategies
The Research Question:
Some Guidelines & A Step-by-Step Approach
“Real” Examples to Illustrate Approach

19. Refresh on Research Topic Formulation: In a nutshell!
An Iterative Process + a Porous Mind!
Initial seed(s):
Consultation with Supervisor(s) and Others
Personal Background, Experiences, Intuition
Literature Review-1:
Skeletal
Exploratory

20. Research Topic Formulation: Literature Review-1
Aims:
to assess importance/worthiness of topic(s) of interest
to clarify and justify a specific topic
Involves:
Reading seminal papers, recent review/tutorial papers
Learning about state-of-the-art from papers’ introductions
Learning of “ways forward” from papers’ conclusions
Paying attention to titles, keywords and recurrent citations
Annotating a preliminary bibliography

21. “Paradigm” Undertaking Research Study  A New Way of Thinking!
Kuhn, T.S. (1970), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press
DEFINITIONS
A basic orientation to theory & research
A whole system of thinking
Basic assumptions
Important Questions to be resolved
Collection of Research Techniques
Examples of what good research looks like

22. Undertaking Research Study  A New Way of Thinking!
Research Philosophies
Positivism
Interpretivism
Research Orientations
Basic ( “pure”)
Applied
Research Typology  Purpose-related
Exploratory
Descriptive
Explanatory

23. Positivism (scientific method)
Origins & Underlying Philosophy
Traditional approach from the “hard” sciences
Dominates research and publications (CS & IS)
Assumes existence of a priori, fixed relationships within phenomena that are typically investigated with structured instruments.
Aims
To test theory
To increase predictive understanding
Identifiable by
Testing of hypotheses
Quantifiable measure of variables
Population inferences from samples
Purely descriptive studies (e.g., factual accounts, case studies)

24. The Positivist Starts with or Seeks Cause-Effect (CE) Relationships
Tests CE’s Underlying Ideas measurements/observations
Remains Detached, Neutral & Objective
relies on observed facts
examines new/old evidence

25. The Interpretivist (I) vs The Positivist (P)
P would
precisely measure quantitative details about 1000 individuals
use statistical data analyses
rely on such analyses to interpret behaviour(s) & derive “laws” or “models”
I would
live for some time with 12 individuals
use careful methods to collect large quantities of qualitative details
rely on such data to acquire understanding of human behaviour(s)

26. Interpretivism Origins & Underlying Philosophy Aims Identifiable by
From (some of) the social sciences (e.g., anthropology):
Ethnographic methods - field research
Assumes that people create and associate their own subjective and inter-subjective meanings as they interact w/ the world around them.
Aims
To elucidate and to expose human meaning in social life
To use relativistic, shared understanding of phenomena
Identifiable by
Non-deterministic perspective
No a priori researcher’s understanding
Cultural or contextual effects on understanding
Data collected in natural setting

27. Research Orientations
Basic
Advances fundamental knowledge
Contributes largely to theory formation
Refuting  Supporting
Descriptive, Explanatory, Exploratory
Example
Pure maths research (100 yrs ago)  Today’s computers!

28. Research Orientations
Applied
Advances application of knowledge
Contributes largely to particular/specific problems/applications
Theory is less central
Practical use is more central
Frequently Descriptive
Example
Social Impact of the AIDS virus
Policy Issues on Internet Gambling

29. Research Types: Exploratory
Goals
To uncover basic facts, people and issues involved
To develop a good mental picture of area of investigation
To generate ideas and develop tentative theories & propositions
To formulate questions for more systematic work
Example
Unseen Symptoms (1980s)  AIDS virus
Medical research
Social research

30. Research Types: Descriptive
Goals
To describe a process, a mechanism, a relationship
To create a set of categories or types
To provide information pointing toward new explanations
To provide information that contradicts existing theory
Tools
Surveys/Questionnaires
Field data
Historical-comparative data
Outcome Example
10% of parents are found to abuse children in society X!

31. Research Types: Explanatory
Goals
To determine accuracy of principle or of theory
To evaluate competing explanations
To link issues under a common general statement
To build or expand upon existing theory
To apply existing theory to a new application
To provide evidence to support or refute an explanation
To advance knowledge about underlying process
Outcome Example
Why are 10% of parents found to abuse children in society X?

32. Basic Research Strategies: Ways to Acquire Knowledge
1) Tenacity: “it has always been that way”
2) Authority: “the boss says it is true”
3) Intuition: “it feels true”
4) Rationalism: “it makes sense logically”
5) Empiricism: “I observed it to be true”
Research Process : [(4) + (5)] + (3)

33. Formulating the Research Question/Problem: Some Guidelines
Some Crucial, Initial Determinants
Your interest in the subject area
Manageability of research study within your constraints
Suggested Steps (assuming you already have a specific topic)
Raise research questions you would like to answer
Formulate objectives (main & sub-) for your study
Assess objectives (feasibility, resources & technical expertise)
Double check

34. On Formulating Main Objective & Sub-Objectives re: Research Question/Problem
{Objective+Sub-Objectives} = {Goals to be Attained}
Main Objective = The Main Goal
Thrust of Study
Main Connections/Associations to be Discovered/Established
Ex.: To find out the effects of alcoholism on the family
Sub-Objectives = Specific Goals
Ex.-1: To find out the effects of alcoholism on the financial institution of the family
Ex.-2: To determine the ways in which alcoholism affects different aspects of children’s lives
Wording  Research Orientation/Type
Clarity
Completeness
Specificity

35. Research Methods: The Literature Review
Graziano & Raulin (1997)

36. Lecture Outline & Objectives
Literature Review:
Why?  Motivations & Benefits
What?  Characteristics & Goals
How?  Procedures

37. Why?  (1) Bring Clarity & Focus
The daunting paradox:
Effective literature search research problem
Literature review shape research problem
Expected (inevitable?) Benefits:
Better (& deeper) understanding of subject/problem area
Conceptualisation of a viable, research problem
Clarity
Conciseness

38. Why?  (2) Improve Your Methodology
Contra others’ procedures and methods
Similarity
Effectiveness
Limitations
Expected Benefits
Procedures/methods appropriate to research problem
Defensible choices

39. Why?  (3) Broaden Your Knowledge Base
Ensemble of perspectives
Currency of similar and/or related problems
Types of theories & their explanatory strengths
Trends in methodologies & their effectiveness
Argumentations & interpretations
{… Gaps …}!

40. Why?  Purpose (in a nutshell)
Generic requirements:
Learn from others and formulate new ideas
Show prior research direction
Integrate and summarise what is known
Demonstrate strong familiarity with a body of knowledge
Research degree requirements
Evidence of: {your problem area}  {high level of expertise}
Evidence of: {your study}  {existing body of knowledge}

41. Why?  Benefits (in a nutshell)
Expert knowledge of
The topic finally selected and other related topics
The theories relevant to a range of topics
Range of viable and/or plausible hypotheses
Research designs & methodologies applicable to topic area
Sound knowledge of
Leading Perspectives
Leading Scholars
A way of thinking!  Second nature!

42. What?  Characteristics of Literature Review
Three (3) major goals
Relevant body of knowledge  Framework
Prior research paths  Context
Integration  Threads  Research problem!
Reviewing Styles/Types
Literature = {???}

43. What?  Goal-1: Familiarity w/ Body of knowledge
Common to all reviews
Provides necessary foundation/framework
Expertise Credibility!
Scholarship A way of thinking!
Not the only Goal:
Generally
Definitely  Thesis Context

44. What?  Goal-2: Prior Research Paths
Essential Goal!
Unfold links within relevant body of knowledge
Research (sub-) objectives
A gradual build up to research question
Extension of a line of thought
Conflicting views
Unanswered question(s)

45. What?  Goal-3: Integrate and Summarise
Essential Goal!
What is (or appears to be) known
Contrasts amongst Theories/Methodologies
Unifying perspectives on Theories/Methodologies
What is (or appears to be) unknown
Recall range of plausible research hypotheses/questions
Recall YOUR research question  its relevance!
Recall YOUR research question  its significance!

46. What?  Reviewing Styles/Types: A broad classification
Contextual ……...  Goal-2
Theoretical ……..  Goal-2
Methodological ..  Goal-2
Integrative ………  Goal-3
Historical ……….  Goal-2, Goal-3
Meta-analysis ….  Combining results of previous papers

47. What?  Literature = {???} Primary Sources Secondary Sources
Academic Journals (serials)
Electronic Journals
Conference Proceedings
Dissertations and Theses
Abstract and Keyword Services
Secondary Sources
Book Chapters
Monographs
Other Sources
Government Publications
Industry Reports

48. How?: Primary Sources
Primary sources publish the details of specific research projects
Journal articles
Thousands of journals covering every topic imaginable
Abstract services makes it easy to find relevant journal articles
Dissertations
Available through interlibrary loan or Web

49. How?: Secondary Sources
Secondary sources provide reviews of broad areas of research
Review articles in journals or books
Provide integrative reviews of a research area
Some journals specialize in these kinds of integrative reviews
Books and edited books
Provide extensive reviews without the typical space constraints of journal reviews

50. How?: Finding the Relevant Research
Searching randomly for the information you want is a hopeless task
Abstract and keyword search services allow you to track down information by author, title, and most importantly, topic
Citation indexes allow you to find sources by identifying papers that reference a particularly relevant paper

51. How?: Abstracting Services
Abstracting services provide information on a wide range of sources (journal articles, books and chapters in books, magazine articles, etc.) in a standard format that includes an abstract of each source

52. How?: Subject and Keyword Services
Virtually identical to abstract services except they do not include the abstract
Topic searches are conducted by title, keyword, or subject searches

53. How?: Citation Indexes
Lists which articles, books, or chapters reference a specific paper
Valuable for finding studies that build on previous research, because these studies will usually reference the previous work

54. How?: Search Strategies
Many ways to find the information that you are after
Search by topic
Search by author using authors who you know specialize in the area
Check out the references in relevant articles
Use citation indexes to find articles that cite classic articles in a field

55. The most common search strategy
How?: Search by Topic
The most common search strategy
Abstract and keyword indexes are structured for topic searches
Most are now computerized
Easy to do sophisticated searches in computerized databases using Boolean operators (OR & AND)
Identify all the work of authors you find who have done a lot of work in the field

56. How?: Searching Backwards
Relevant research will likely reference other relevant research
Identify some recent relevant studies and then look through their reference sections
Not a substitute for a thorough topic search, but is a good supplementary strategy

57. How?: Searching Forward
In most areas, there will be one or more articles that are SO critical that they will be referenced by every related study
Citation indexes can be used to find the studies that reference these classic studies
Again, not a substitute for a thorough topic search, but a good supplementary strategy

58. How?: Literature Reading (A suggested procedure)
Step-1: Skim article/chapter:
title, abstract, (sub-) headings & conclusion
Step-2: Reflect for a moment 
Formulate questions YOU expect to be answered
Step-3: Read article/chapter quickly
Step-4: Read article/chapter while taking notes & highlighting items
Step-5: Reflect on article/chapter 
Formulate questions Your potential research
Step-6: Integrate all YOUR thoughts

59. Literature Review In Sum
It involves a paradox in the first instance
A continuous process  A way of thinking!
searching for existing literature
reviewing the selected literature
using it to develop the antecedents to your problem
using it to develop the framework for your investigations
all materials presented must have a purpose