1. Basic Microcomputer Design

2. Inside the CPU Registers – storage locations Control Unit (CU) – coordinates the sequencing of steps involved in executing machine instructions Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) - performs arithmetic and logical operations Clock – synchronizes the internal operations of the CPU with the other system components

3. Bus Structure Bus - a group of parallel wires that transfer information from one part of the computer to another. –Control Bus – synchronizes the actions of all of the devices attached to the system bus. –Address Bus – passes the addresses of instructions and data between the CPU and memory (or I/O). – Data Bus – transfers instructions and data between the CPU and memory (or I/O).

4. Bus Sizes For the 8086 Processor –Data Bus – 16 bits (16-bit processor) –Address Bus – 20 bits (can access 1M of memory)

6. The Intel CPU Family

7. Notes from Intel Family Chart Notice that 386 – Pentium 4 are 32-bit processors (32-bit data bus – 4 bytes) Notice that 386 and beyond have 32-bit address bus can access (4G of memory addresses).

8. Machine Cycle Most basic unit of time for machine instructions = the time required for one complete clock cycle. Machine instructions require at least 1 clock cycle to execute. Most require more. Wait states – empty clock cycles of machine execution time (due to memory access time being slower than speed of clock).

9. Instruction Execution Cycle If using Memory operand (mov ax, 0A69Bh) –Calculate address of operand –Place address of operand on address bus –Wait for memory to get operand and pass it on data bus

11. Instruction Cycle Fetch Decode Fetch memory operands Execute Store output operand

12. Pipelining Versus Non-Pipelining In non-pipelined systems, for k execution states, n instructions require (n*k) cycles to process. Using a pipelined system with k execution states, n instructions require (k + (n-1)) cycles to complete.

13. Pipeline for 8086 (2-stage pipelining)

14. 2-stage Pipelining Bus Interface Unit: accesses memory and provides I/O Execution Unit: executes the microcode instructions.

15. IA-32 Processor Pipelinig (6-stage Pipelining) Bus Interface Unit: accesses memory and provides I/O Code Prefetch Unit: receives instructions from the BIU and inserts them into a holding area (instruction queue) Instruction Decode Unit: decodes machine instructions from the prefetch queue and translates them into microcode. Execution Unit: executes the microcode instructions. Segment Unit: translates logical addresses into linear addresses and performs protection checks Paging Unit: translates linear addresses into physical addresses, performs page protection checks and keeps a list of recently accessed pages

16. Superscalar Architecture Processors that allow two or more execution pipelines (two or more instructions can be in the execution stages at the same time).

17. Reading from memory Typically the CPU clock is running much faster than memory access time. Cache –1 st Level – on chip –2 nd Level – separate high speed RAM