The Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton Lecture Outline

The Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton Lecture Outline
Chapter 7 The Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton Lecture Outline

INTRODUCTION Familiarity with the names, shapes, and positions of individual bones helps to locate other organs and to understand how muscles produce different movements due to attachment on individual bones and the use of leverage with joints. The bones, muscles, and joints together form the musculoskeletal system. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Chapter 7 The Skeletal System:The Axial Skeleton
80 bones lie along longitudinal axis skull, hyoid, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, ear ossicles Appendicular Skeleton 126 bones upper & lower limbs and pelvic & pectoral girdles Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
The axial skeleton consists of bones arranged along the longitudinal axis of the body. The parts of the axial skeleton, composed of 80 bones, are the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, sternum, and ribs (Figure 7.1). The appendicular skeleton comprises one of the two major divisions of the skeletal system.It consists of 126 bones in the upper and lower extremities (limbs or appendages) and the pectoral (shoulder) and pelvic (hip) girdles, which attach them to the rest of the skeleton. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Types of Bones 5 basic types of bones: long = compact
short = spongy except surface flat = plates of compact enclosing spongy irregular = variable sesamoid = develop in tendons or ligaments (patella) Sutural bones = in joint between skull bones Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

BONE SURFACE MARKINGS There are two major types of surface markings.
Depressions and openings participate in joints or allow the passage of soft tissue. Processes are projections or outgrowths that either help form joints or serve as attachment points for connective tissue. Table 7.2 describe the various surface markings along with examples of each. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Bone Surface Markings from Table 7.2
Foramen = opening Fossa = shallow depression Sulcus = groove Meatus = tubelike passageway or canal Condyle = large, round protuberance Facet = smooth flat articular surface Trochanter = very large projection Tuberosity = large, rounded, roughened projection Learning the terms found in this Table will simplify your study of the skeleton. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

SKULL The skull, composed of 22 bones, consists of the cranial bones (cranium) and the facial bones (face) (Figures. 7.3 through 7.8). General Features The skull forms the large cranial cavity and smaller cavities, including the nasal cavity and orbits (eye sockets). Certain skull bones contain mucous membrane lined cavities called paranasal sinuses. The only moveable bone of the skull, other than the ear ossicles within the temporal bones, is the mandible. Immovable joints called sutures hold the skull bones together. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

The Skull 8 Cranial bones protect brain & house ear ossicles
muscle attachment for jaw, neck & facial muscles 14 Facial bones protect delicate sense organs -- smell, taste, vision support entrances to digestive and respiratory systems Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

The 8 Cranial Bones Sphenoid Ethmoid Frontal Parietal (2) Temporal (2)
Occipital Sphenoid Ethmoid Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Frontal Bone Forehead, roof of orbits, & anterior cranial floor
Frontal suture gone by age 6 (metopic suture) Supraorbital margin and frontal sinus A “black eye” results from accumulation of fluid and blood in the upper eyelid following a blow to the relatively sharp supraorbital margin (brow line). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

cranial bone functions
They protect the brain. Their inner surfaces attach to membranes that stabilize the positions of the brain, blood vessels, and nerves. The outer surfaces of cranial bones provide large areas of attachment for muscles that move the various parts of the head. Facial bones form the framework of the face and protect and provide support for the nerves and blood vessels in that area. Cranial and facial bones together protect and support the special sense organs. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Parietal & Temporal Bones
sides & roof of cranial cavity Temporal temporal squama zygomatic process forms part of arch external auditory meatus mastoid process styloid process stylomastoid foramen(VII) mandibular fossa (TMJ) petrous portion (VIII) Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Temporal and Occipital bones
carotid foramen (carotid artery) jugular foramen (jugular vein) Occipital foramen magnum occipital condyles external occipital protuberance attachment for ligamentum nuchae superior & inferior nuchal lines Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Sphenoid bone Base of skull
Pterygoid processes are attachment sites for jaw muscles Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Sphenoid in Anterior View
Body is a cubelike portion holding sphenoid sinuses Greater and lesser wings Pterygoid processes Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Sphenoid from Superior View
Lesser wing & greater wing Sella turcica holds pituitary gland Optic foramen Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Ethmoid Bone The ethmoid bone forms part of the anterior portion of the cranial floor, the medial wall of the orbits, the superior portion of the nasal septum, and most of the superior side walls of the nasal cavity. It is a major superior supporting structure of the nasal cavity (Figures 7.11, 7.13). Crista galli attaches to the membranes that cover the brain Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Ethmoid bone Lateral masses contain ethmoid sinuses
Perpendicular plate is upper part of nasal septum Superior & middle nasal concha or turbinates filters & warms air Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

14 Facial Bones Nasal (2) Maxillae (2) Zygomatic (2)
Mandible (1) Lacrimal (2) Palatine (2) Inferior nasal conchae (2) Vomer (1) Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Maxillary bones Floor of orbit, floor of nasal cavity or hard palate
Maxillary sinus Alveolar processes hold upper teeth Cleft palate is lack of union of maxillary bones Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Zygomatic Bones Cheekbones Lateral wall of orbit along with sphenoid
Part of zygomatic arch along with part of temporal Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Lacrimal and Inferior Nasal Conchae
Lacrimal bones part of medial wall of orbit lacrimal fossa houses lacrimal sac Inferior nasal concha or turbinate (not part of ethmoid) Inferior Nasal Conchae Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Mandible Body, angle & rami Condylar & coronoid processes
Alveolar processes for lower teeth Mandibular & mental foramen Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

TMJ The mandible articulates with the temporal bone to form the temporomandibular joint (Figure 7.4). Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) syndrome is dysfunction to varying degrees of the temporomandibular joint. Causes appear to be numerous and the treatment is similarly variable. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Palatine & Vomer Palatine
L-shaped : one end is back part of hard palate, other end is part of orbit (see previous picture) Vomer posterior part of nasal septum Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Nasal Septum The nasal septum is a vertical partition that divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides (Figure 7.11). A deviated nasal septum is a lateral deflection of the septum from the midline, usually resulting from improper fusion of septal bones and cartilage. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Nasal Septum Divides nasal cavity into left and right sides
Formed by vomer, perpendicular plate of ethmoid and septal cartilage Deviated septum does not line in the midline developmental abnormality or trauma Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

The orbits (eye sockets)
The orbits contain the eyeballs and associated structures and are formed by seven bones of the skull (Figure 7.12). Five important foramina are associated with each orbit Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Bones of the Orbit Roof is frontal and sphenoid
Lateral wall is zygomatic and sphenoid Floor is maxilla, zygomatic and sphenoid Medial wall is maxilla, lacrimal, ethmoid and sphenoid Orbital fissures and optic foramen Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Foramina of the Skull Table 7.4 describes major openings of skull
In which bone would you find the following and what is their function? foramen magnum optic foramen mandibular foramen carotid canal stylomastoid foramen Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Unique Features of the Skull
Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Sutures Sutures are immovable joints found only between skull bones and hold skull bones together. Sutures include the coronal, sagittal, lamboidal,and squamous sutures, among others (Figures 7.4, 7.6). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Sutures Lamboid suture unites parietal and occipital
Sagittal suture unites 2 parietal bones Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Sutures Coronal suture unites frontal and both parietal bones
Squamous suture unites parietal and temporal bones Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Paranasal Sinuses Paranasal sinuses are cavities in bones of the skull that communicate with the nasal cavity. They are lined by mucous membranes and also serve to lighten the skull and serve as resonating chambers for speech. Cranial bones containing the sinuses are the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillae. Sinusitis occurs when membranes of the paranasal sinuses become inflamed due to infection or allergy. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Paranasal Sinuses Paired cavities in ethmoid, sphenoid, frontal and maxillary Lined with mucous membranes and open into nasal cavity Resonating chambers for voice, lighten the skull Sinusitis is inflammation of the membrane (allergy) Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Fontanels Fontanels are dense connective tissue membrane-filled spaces between the cranial bones of fetuses and infants. They remain unossified at birth but close early in a child’s life (Figure 7.14). The major fontanels are the anterior, posterior, anterolaterals, and posterolaterals . Fontanels have two major functions. They enable the fetal skull to modify its size and shape as it passes through the birth canal. They permit rapid growth of the brain during infancy. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Fontanels of the Skull at Birth.
Dense connective tissue membrane-filled spaces (soft spots) Unossified at birth but close early in a child's life. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

HYOID BONE The hyoid bone is a unique component of the axial skeleton because it does not articulate with any other bones. The hyoid bone consists of a horizontal body and paired projections, the lesser and greater horns. (Figure 7.15) Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Hyoid Bone U-shaped single bone
Articulates with no other bone of the body Suspended by ligament and muscle from skull Supports the tongue & provides attachment for tongue, neck and pharyngeal muscles Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

VERTEBRAL COLUMN The vertebral column, along with the sternum and ribs, makes up the trunk of the skeleton. The 26 bones of the vertebral column are arranged into five regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal (Figure 7.16a). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Vertebral Column Backbone or spine built of 26 vertebrae
Five vertebral regions cervical vertebrae (7) in the neck thoracic vertebrae ( 12 ) in the thorax lumbar vertebrae ( 5 ) in the low back region sacrum (5, fused) coccyx (4, fused) Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Intervertebral Discs Between adjacent vertebrae absorbs vertical shock
Permit various movements of the vertebral column Fibrocartilagenous ring with a pulpy center Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Normal Curves of the Vertebral Column
The four normal vertebral curves are the cervical and lumbar (anteriorly convex curves) and thoracic and sacral (anteriorly concave curves) (Figure 7.16b). Between adjacent vertebrae, from the first cervical (atlas) to the sacrum, are intervertebral discs that form strong joints, permit various movements of the vertebral column, and absorb vertical shock (Figure 7.16d). In the fetus, there is only a single anteriorly concave curve (Figure 7.16c). The cervical curve develops as the child begins to hold his head erect. The lumbar curve develops as the child begins to walk. All curves are fully developed by age 10. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Normal Curves of the Vertebral Column
Primary curves thoracic and sacral are formed during fetal development Secondary curves cervical if formed when infant raises head at 4 months lumbar forms when infant sits up & begins to walk at 1 year Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Vertebrae Parts of a typical vertebra include a body, a vertebral arch, and several processes (Figure 7.17). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Typical Vertebrae Body weight bearing Vertebral arch pedicles laminae
Vertebral foramen Seven processes 2 transverse 1 spinous 4 articular Vertebral notches Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Intervertebral Foramen & Spinal Canal
Spinal canal is all vertebral foramen together Intervertebral foramen are 2 vertebral notches together Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Regions of the Vertebral Column

Cervical Region There are 7 cervical vertebrae (Figure 7.18a).
The first cervical vertebra is the atlas and supports the skull (Figure 7.18a, b). The second cervical vertebra is the axis, which permits side-to-side rotation of the head (Figure 7.18a, c). The third to sixth correspond to the structural patterns of the typical cervical vertebrae (Figure 7.18d). The seventh called the vertebra prominens is somewhat different (Figure 7.18) Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Typical Cervical Vertebrae (C3-C7)
Smaller bodies but larger spinal canal Transverse processes shorter, with transverse foramen for vertebral artery Spinous processes of C2 to C6 often bifid 1st and 2nd cervical vertebrae are unique - atlas & axis Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Atlas & Axis (C1-C2) Atlas -- ring of bone, superior facets for occipital condyles nodding movement at atlanto-occipital joint signifies “yes” Axis -- dens or odontoid process is body of atlas pivotal movement at atlanto-axial joint signifies “no” Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Thoracic Region There are 12 thoracic vertebrae (Figure 7.19).
These vertebrae articulate with the ribs. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Thoracic Vertebrae (T1-T12)
Larger and stronger bodies Longer transverse & spinous processes Facets or demifacets on body for head of rib Facets on transverse processes (T1-T10) for tubercle of rib Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Lumbar Region There are 5 lumbar vertebrae (Figure 7.20).
They are the largest and strongest vertebrae in the column. Table 7.4 summarizes the major structural differences among the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Lumbar Vertebrae Strongest & largest
Short thick spinous & transverse processes back musculature Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Sacrum The sacrum is formed by the union of 5 sacral vertebrae (Figure 7.21a) and serves as a strong foundation for the pelvic girdle. Table 8.1 shows the differences between the male and female sacrum. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Sacrum Union of 5 vertebrae (S1 - S5) by age 30
median sacral crest was spinous processes sacral ala is fused transverse processes Sacral canal ends at sacral hiatus Auricular surface & sacral tuberosity of SI joint Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Coccyx The coccyx is formed by the fusion of 4 coccygeal vertebrae (Figure 7.21). Caudal anesthesia (epidural block), frequently used during labor (in childbirth), causes numbness in the regions innervated by the sacral and coccygeal nerves (approximately from the waist to the knees). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Coccyx Union of 4 vertebrae (Co1 - Co4) by age 30
Caudal or epidural anesthesia during delivery into sacral hiatus anesthetize sacral & coccygeal nerves sacral and coccygeal cornu are important landmarks Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

THORAX The term thorax refers to the entire chest.
The skeletal part of the thorax (a bony cage) consists of the sternum, costal cartilages, ribs, and the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae (Figure 7.22). The thoracic cage encloses and protects the organs in the thoracic and superior abdominal cavities. It also provides support for the bones of the shoulder girdle and upper limbs. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Thorax Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Thorax Bony cage flattened from front to back Sternum (breastbone)
Ribs 1-7 are true ribs (vertebrosternal) 8-12 are false ribs (vertebrochondral) 11-12 are floating Costal cartilages Bodies of the thoracic vertebrae. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Sternum The sternum is located on the anterior midline of the thoracic wall. It consists of three parts: manubrium, body, and xiphoid process (Figure 7.22). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Sternum Manubrium 1st & 2nd ribs clavicular notch Body
costal cartilages of 2-10 ribs Xiphoid ossifies by 40 CPR position abdominal mm. Sternal puncture biopsy Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Ribs The 12 pairs of ribs give structural support to the sides of the thoracic cavity (Figure 7.22b). The first 7 pairs of ribs are called true ribs; the remaining five pairs, false ribs (with the last two false ribs called floating ribs). Figure 7.23a shows the parts of a typical rib. Rib fractures are the most common types of chest injuries. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Ribs Increase in length from ribs 1-7, thereafter decreasing
Head and tubercle articulate with facets Body with costal groove containing nerve & blood vessels Intercostal spaces contain intercostal muscles Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Rib Articulation Tubercle articulates with transverse process
Head articulates with vertebral bodies Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Protrusion of the nucleus pulposus into an adjacent vertebral body is called a herniated (slipped) disc (Figure 7.24). This movement exerts pressure on spinal nerves, causing considerable pain. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Herniated (Slipped) Disc
Protrusion of the nucleus pulposus Most commonly in lumbar region Pressure on spinal nerves causes pain Surgical removal of disc after laminectomy Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
Abnormal curvatures of the vertebral column include scoliosis, an lateral bending of the vertebral column; kyphosis, an exaggerated curve of the thoracic curve; and lordosis, an exaggeration of the lumbar curve (Figure 7.25 a-c). Spina bifida is a congenital defect caused by failure of the vertebral laminae to unite at the midline. This may involve only one or several vertebrae; nervous tissue may or may not protrude through the skin (Figure 7.26). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Clinical Problems Abnornal curves of the spine.
scoliosis (lateral bending of the column) kyphosis (exaggerated thoracic curve) lordosis (exaggerated lumbar curve) Spina bifida is a congenital defect failure of the vertebral laminae to unite nervous tissue is unprotected paralysis Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

end Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

The Skeletal System: Appendicular Skeleton Lecture Outline
Chapter 8 The Skeletal System: Appendicular Skeleton Lecture Outline

INTRODUCTION The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the upper and lower extremities and the shoulder and hip girdles. The appendicular skeleton functions primarily to facilitate movement. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Chapter 8 The Skeletal System: Appendicular Skeleton
Pectoral girdle Pelvic girdle Upper limbs Lower limbs Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
The pectoral or shoulder girdle attaches the bones of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton (Figure 8.1). Consists of scapula and clavicle Clavicle articulates with sternum (sternoclavicular joint) Clavicle articulates with scapula (acromioclavicular joint) Scapula held in place by muscle only Upper limb attached to pectoral girdle at shoulder (glenohumeral joint) Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Clavicle The clavicle or collar bone lies horizontally in the superior and anterior part of thorax superior to the first rib and articulates with the sternum and the clavicle (Figure 8.2). The clavicle, one of the most frequently broken bones in the body, transmits mechanical force from the upper limb to the trunk. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Clavicle (collarbone)
S-shaped bone with two curves medial curve convex anteriorly/lateral one concave anteriorly Extends from sternum to scapula above 1st rib Fracture site is junction of curves Ligaments attached to clavicle stabilize its position. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Scapula The scapula or shoulder blade articulates with the clavicle and the humerus (Figure 8.3). The scapulae articulate with other bones anteriorly, but are held in place posteriorly only by complex shoulder and back musculature. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Anterior Surface of Scapula
Subscapular fossa filled with muscle Coracoid process for muscle attachment Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Posterior Surface of Scapula
Triangular flat bone found in upper back region Scapular spine ends as acromion process a sharp ridge widening to a flat process Glenoid cavity forms shoulder joint with head of humerus Supraspinous & infraspinous fossa for muscular attachments Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

UPPER LIMB (EXTREMITY)
Each upper limb consists of 30 bones including the humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges (Figure 8.4). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Upper Extremity Each upper limb = 30 bones humerus within the arm
ulna & radius within the forearm carpal bones within the wrist metacarpal bones within the palm phalanges in the fingers Joints shoulder (glenohumeral), elbow, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, interphalangeal Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Humerus The humerus is the longest and largest bone of the upper limb (Figure 8.5). It articulates proximally with the scapula and distally at the elbow with both the radius and ulna. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Humerus --- Proximal End
Part of shoulder joint Head & anatomical neck Greater & lesser tubercles for muscle attachments Intertubercular sulcus or bicipital groove Surgical neck is fracture site Deltoid tuberosity Shaft Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Humerus --- Distal End anterior and posterior
Forms elbow joint with ulna and radius Capitulum articulates with head of radius Trochlea articulation with ulna Olecranon fossa posterior depression for olecranon process of ulna Medial & lateral epicondyles attachment of forearm muscles Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Ulna and Radius The ulna is located on the medial aspect of the forearm (Figure 8.6). The radius is located on the lateral aspect (thumb side) of the forearm (Figure 8.6) The radius and ulna articulate with the humerus at the elbow joint (Figure 8.7a), with each other (Figure 8.7b, c), and with three carpal bones. (Figure 8.8) Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Ulna & Radius --- Proximal End
Ulna (on little finger side) trochlear notch articulates with humerus & radial notch with radius olecranon process forms point of elbow Radius (on thumb side) head articulates with capitulum of humerus & radial notch of ulna tuberosity for muscle attachment Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Elbow Joint Articulation of humerus with ulna and radius
Ulna articulates with trochlea of humerus Radius articulates with capitulum of humerus Interosseous membrane between ulna & radius provides site for muscle attachment Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Ulna and Radius - Distal End
Ulna --styloid process head separated from wrist joint by fibrocartilage disc Radius forms wrist joint with scaphoid, lunate & triquetrum forms distal radioulnar joint with head of ulna Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Carpals, Metacarpal, and Phalanges
The eight carpal bones, bound together by ligaments, comprise the wrist (Figure. 8.8). Five metacarpal bones are contained in the palm of each hand (Figure 8.8). Each hand contains 14 phalanges, three in each finger and two in each thumb (Figure 8.8). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

8 Carpal Bones (wrist) Proximal row - lat to med
scaphoid - boat shaped lunate - moon shaped triquetrum - 3 corners pisiform - pea shaped Distal row - lateral to medial trapezium - four sided trapezoid - four sided capitate - large head hamate - hooked process Carpal tunnel--tunnel of bone & flexor retinaculum Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Metacarpals and Phalanges
5 total----#1 proximal to thumb base, shaft, head knuckles (metacarpophalangeal joints) Phalanges 14 total: each is called phalanx proximal, middle, distal on each finger, except thumb Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Hand Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

PELVIC (HIP) GIRDLE The pelvic (hip) girdle consists of two hipbones (coxal bones) and provides a strong and stable support for the lower extremities, on which the weight of the body is carried (Figure 8.9). Each hipbone (coxal bone) is composed of three separate bones at birth: the ilium, pubis, and ischium. These bones eventually fuse at a depression called the acetabulum, which forms the socket for the hip joint (Figure 8.10a). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Pelvic Girdle and Hip Bones
Pelvic girdle = two hipbones united at pubic symphysis articulate posteriorly with sacrum at sacroiliac joints Each hip bone = ilium, pubis, and ischium fuse after birth at acetabulum Bony pelvis = 2 hip bones, sacrum and coccyx Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

The Ilium The larger of the three components of the hip bone and articulates (fuses) with the ischium and pubis (Figure 8.10b,c). Bone marrow aspiration or bone marrow biopsy are frequently performed on the iliac crest in adults. The ischium is the inferior, posterior portion of the hip bone (Figure 8.10b,c). The pubis is the anterior and inferior part of the hip bone (Figure 8.10b,c). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Iliac crest and iliac spines for muscle attachment
Ilium Iliac crest and iliac spines for muscle attachment Iliac fossa for muscle attachment Gluteal lines indicating muscle attachment Sacroiliac joint at auricular surface & iliac tuberosity Greater sciatic notch for sciatic nerve Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

ischial spine & tuberosity lesser sciatic notch ramus Pubis body
Ischium and Pubis Ischium ischial spine & tuberosity lesser sciatic notch ramus Pubis body superior & inferior ramus pubic symphysis is pad of fibrocartilage between 2 pubic bones Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Pelvis Pelvis = sacrum, coccyx & 2 hip bones Pelvic brim
sacral promontory to symphysis pubis separates false from true pelvis false pelvis holds only abdominal organs Inlet & outlet Pelvic axis = path of babies head Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

True and False Pelves Together with the sacrum and coccyx, the two hipbones (coxal bones) form the pelvis. The greater (false) and lesser (true) pelvis are anatomical subdivisions of this basin-like structure (Figure 8.11a). Pelvimetry, the measurement of the size of the inlet and the outlet of the birth canal, is important during pregnancy Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Female and Male Skeletons
larger and heavier larger articular surfaces larger muscle attachments Female pelvis wider & shallower larger pelvic inlet & outlet more space in true pelvis pubic arch >90 degrees Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

COMPARISON OF FEMALE AND MALE PELVES
Male bones are generally larger and heavier than those of the female; the male’s joint surfaces also tend to be larger. Muscle attachment points are more well-defined in the bones of a male than of a female due to the larger size of the muscles in males. A number of anatomical differences exist between the pelvic girdles of females and those of males, primarily related to the need for a larger pelvic outlet in females to facilitate childbirth (Table 8.1). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Female Male Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

COMPARISON OF PECTORAL AND PELVIC GIRDLES
The pectoral girdle does not directly articulate with the vertebral column; the pelvic girdle does. The pectoral girdle sockets are shallow and maximize movement; those of the pelvic girdle are deeper and allow less movement. The structure of the pectoral girdle offers more movement than strength; the pelvic girdle, more strength than movement. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

LOWER LIMB (EXTREMITY)
Each lower extremity is composed of 30 bones, including the femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges (Figure 8.12). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Lower Extremity Each lower limb = 30 bones
femur and patella within the thigh tibia & fibula within the leg tarsal bones in the foot metatarsals within the forefoot phalanges in the toes Joints hip, knee, ankle proximal & distal tibiofibular metatarsophalangeal Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Femur The femur or thighbone is the largest, heaviest, and strongest bone of the body (Figure 8.13a, b). It articulates with the hip bone and the tibia. head articulates with acetabulum (attached by ligament of head of femur) medial & lateral condyles articulate with tibia neck is common fracture site greater & lesser trochanters, linea aspera, & gluteal tuberosity-- muscle attachments patellar surface is visible anteriorly between condyles Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Femur Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Patella The patella or kneecap is a sesamoid bone located anterior to the knee joint (Figure 8.14). It functions to increase the leverage of the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle, to maintain the position of the tendon when the knee is bent, and to protect the knee joint. Patellofemoral stress syndrome is a common knee problem in runners. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Patella triangular sesamoid bone
increases leverage of quadriceps femoris tendon Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Tibia and Fibula The tibia or shinbone is the larger, medial, weight-bearing bone of the leg (Figure 8.15). The fibula is parallel and lateral to the tibia (Figure 8.15). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

medial & larger bone of leg weight-bearing bone
Tibia and Fibula Tibia medial & larger bone of leg weight-bearing bone lateral & medial condyles tibial tuberosity for patellar lig. proximal tibiofibular joint medial malleolus at ankle Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Tibia and Fibula lateral view of tibia Fibula not part of knee joint
muscle attachment only lateral malleolus at ankle lateral view of tibia Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges
Seven tarsal bones constitute the ankle and share the weight associated with walking (Figure 8.16). Five metatarsal bones are contained in the foot (Figure 8.16). Fractures of the metatarsals are common among dancers, especially ballet dancers. The arrangement of phalanges in the toes is the same as that described for the fingers and thumb above - fourteen bones in each foot (Figure 8.16). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Tarsus Proximal region of foot (contains 7 tarsal bones)
Talus = ankle bone (articulates with tibia & fibula) Calcaneus - heel bone Cuboid, navicular & 3 cuneiforms Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Metatarsus and Phalanges
midregion of the foot 5 metatarsals (1 is most medial) each with base, shaft and head Phalanges distal portion of the foot similar in number and arrangement to the hand big toe is hallux Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Arches of the Foot The bones of the foot are arranged in two non-rigid arches that enable the foot to support the weight of the body; provide an ideal distribution of body weight over the hard and soft tissues, and provide leverage while walking (Figure 8.17). Flatfoot, clawfoot, and clubfoot are caused by decline, elevation, or rotation of the medial longitudinal arches. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Arches of the Foot Function distribute body weight over foot
yield & spring back when weight is lifted Longitudinal arches along each side of foot Transverse arch across midfoot region navicular, cuneiforms & bases of metatarsals Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Clinical Problems Flatfoot
weakened ligaments allow bones of medial arch to drop Clawfoot medial arch is too elevated Hip fracture 1/2 million/year in US osteoporosis arthroplasty Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Bone forms from mesoderm by intramembranous or endochondrial ossification. (Figure 6.6) The skull begins development during the fourth week after fertilization (Figure 8.18a) Vertebrae are derived from portions of cube-shaped masses of mesoderm called somites (Figure 10.10) Around the fifth week of embryonic life, extremities develop from limb buds, which consist of mesoderm and ectoderm (Figure8.18b). By the sixth week, a constriction around the middle portion of the limb buds produces hand plates and foot plates, which will become hands and feet. (Figure8.18c) By the seventh week, the arm, forearm and hand are evident in the upper limb bud and the thigh, leg, and foot appear in the lower limb bud. (Figure8.18d) By the eighth week the limb buds have developed into limbs. (Figure8.18e) Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Joints Lecture Outline
Chapter 9 Joints Lecture Outline

INTRODUCTION A joint (articulation or arthrosis) is a point of contact between two or more bones, between cartilage and bones, or between teeth and bones. The scientific study of joints is called arthrology. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Chapter 9 Joints Joints hold bones together but permit movement
Point of contact between 2 bones between cartilage and bone between teeth and bones Arthrology = study of joints Kinesiology = study of motion Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Classification of Joints
Structural classification is based on the presence or absence of a synovial (joint) cavity and type of connecting tissue. Structurally, joints are classified as fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial. Functional classification based upon movement: immovable = synarthrosis slightly movable = amphiarthrosis freely movable = diarthrosis Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Fibrous Joints Lack a synovial cavity
Bones held closely together by fibrous connective tissue Little or no movement (synarthroses or amphiarthroses) 3 structural types sutures syndesmoses gomphoses Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Sutures Thin layer of dense fibrous connective tissue unites bones of the skull Immovable (synarthrosis) If fuse completely in adults is synostosis Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Syndesmosis Fibrous joint bones united by ligament
Slightly movable (amphiarthrosis) Anterior tibiofibular joint and Interosseous membrane Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Gomphosis Ligament holds cone-shaped peg in bony socket
Immovable (synarthrosis) Teeth in alveolar processes Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Cartilaginous Joints Lacks a synovial cavity
Allows little or no movement Bones tightly connected by fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage 2 types synchondroses symphyses Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Synchondrosis Connecting material is hyaline cartilage
Immovable (synarthrosis) Epiphyseal plate or joints between ribs and sternum Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Symphysis Fibrocartilage is connecting material
Slightly movable (amphiarthroses) Intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Synovial Joints Synovial cavity separates articulating bones
Freely moveable (diarthroses) Articular cartilage reduces friction absorbs shock Articular capsule surrounds joint thickenings in fibrous capsule called ligaments Synovial membrane inner lining of capsule Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Example of Synovial Joint
Joint space is synovial joint cavity Articular cartilage covering ends of bones Articular capsule Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Articular Capsule The articular capsule surrounds a diarthrosis, encloses the synovial cavity, and unites the articulating bones. The articular capsule is composed of two layers - the outer fibrous capsule (which may contain ligaments) and the inner synovial membrane (which secretes a lubricating and joint-nourishing synovial fluid) (Figure 9.3). The flexibility of the fibrous capsule permits considerable movement at a joint, whereas its great tensile strength helps prevent bones from dislocating. Other capsule features include ligaments and articular fat pads (Figure 9.3). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Special Features Synovial Membrane secretes synovial fluid
containing slippery hyaluronic acid brings nutrients to articular cartilage Accessory ligaments extracapsular ligaments outside joint capsule intracapsular ligaments within capsule Articular discs or menisci attached around edges to capsule allow 2 bones of different shape to fit tightly increase stability of knee - torn cartilage Bursae = saclike structures between structures skin/bone or tendon/bone or ligament/bone Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Nerve and Blood Supply Nerves to joints are branches of nerves to nearby muscles Joint capsule and ligaments contain pain fibers and sensory receptors Blood supply to the structures of a joint are branches from nearby structures supply nutrients to all joint tissues except the articular cartilage which is supplied from the synovial fluid Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Sprain versus Strain Sprain
twisting of joint that stretches or tears ligaments no dislocation of the bones may damage nearby blood vessels, muscles or tendons swelling & hemorrhage from blood vessels ankle if frequently sprained Strain generally less serious injury overstretched or partially torn muscle Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Bursae and Tendon Sheaths
fluid-filled saclike extensions of the joint capsule reduce friction between moving structures skin rubs over bone tendon rubs over bone Tendon sheaths tubelike bursae that wrap around tendons at wrist and ankle where many tendons come together in a confined space Bursitis chronic inflammation of a bursa Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

TYPES OF MOVEMENT AT SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Gliding Movements Gliding movements occur when relatively flat bone surfaces move back and forth and from side to side with respect to one another (Figure 9.4). In gliding joints there is no significant alteration of the angle between the bones. Gliding movements occur at plantar joints. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Angular Movements In angular movements there is an increase or a decrease in the angle between articulating bones. Flexion results in a decrease in the angle between articulating bones (Figure 9.5). Lateral flexion involves the movement of the trunk sideways to the right or left at the waist. The movement occurs in the frontal plane and involves the intervertebral joints (Figure 9.5g). Extension results in an increase in the angle between articulating bones (Figure 9.5). Hyperextension is a continuation of extension beyond the anatomical position and is usually prevented by the arrangement of ligaments and the anatomical alignment of bones (Figures 9.5a, b, d, e). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Flexion, Extension & Hyperextension

Abduction, Adduction, and Circumduction
Abduction refers to the movement of a bone away from the midline (Figure 9.6a-c). Adduction refers to the movement of a bone toward the midline (Figure 9.6d). Circumduction refers to movement of the distal end of a part of the body in a circle (Figure 9.7). Circumduction occurs as a result of a continuous sequence of flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction. Condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket joints allow circumduction. In rotation, a bone revolves around its own longitudinal axis (Figure 9.8a). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Abduction and Adduction
Condyloid joints Ball and Socket joints Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Circumduction Movement of a distal end of a body part in a circle
Combination of flexion, extension, adduction and abduction Occurs at ball and socket, saddle and condyloid joints Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Pivot and ball-and-socket joints permit rotation.
If the anterior surface of a bone of the limb is turned toward the midline, medial rotation occurs. If the anterior surface of a bone of the limb is turned away from the midline, lateral rotation occurs (Figure 9.8 b&c). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Rotation Bone revolves around its own longitudinal axis
medial rotation is turning of anterior surface in towards the midline lateral rotation is turning of anterior surface away from the midline At ball & socket and pivot type joints Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Special Movements Elevation is an upward movement of a part of the body (Figure 9.9a). Depression is a downward movement of a part of the body (Figure 9.9b). Protraction is a movement of a part of the body anteriorly in the transverse plane (Figure 9.9c). Retraction is a movement of a protracted part back to the anatomical position (Figure 9.9d). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Special Movements of Mandible
Elevation = upward Depression = downward Protraction = forward Retraction = backward Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Special Movements Inversion is movement of the soles medially at the intertarsal joints so that they face away from each other (Figure 9.9e). Eversion is a movement of the soles laterally at the intertarsal joints so that they face away from each other (Figure 9.9f). Dorsiflexion refers to bending of the foot at the ankle in the direction of the superior surface (Figure 9.9g). Plantar flexion involves bending of the foot at the ankle joint in the direction of the plantar surface (Figure 9.9g). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Special Hand & Foot Movements
Inversion Eversion Dorsiflexion Plantarflexion Pronation Supination Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Special Movements Supination is a movement of the forearm at the proximal and distal radioulnar joints in which the palm is turned anteriorly or superiorly (Figure 9.9h). Pronation is a movement of the forearm at the proximal and distal radioulnar joints in which the distal end of the radius crosses over the distal end of the ulna and the palm is turned posteriorly or inferiorly (Figure 9.9h). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Special Movements Opposition is the movement of the thumb at the carpometacarpal joint in which the thumb moves across the palm to touch the tips of the finger on the same hand. Review A summary of the movements that occur at synovial joints is presented in Table 9.1. A dislocation or luxation is a displacement of a bone from a joint. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Planar joints permit mainly side-to-side and back-and-forth gliding movements (Figure 9.10a). These joints are nonaxial. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Planar Joint Bone surfaces are flat or slightly curved
Side to side movement only Rotation prevented by ligaments Examples intercarpal or intertarsal joints sternoclavicular joint vertebrocostal joints Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

A hinge joint contains the convex surface of one bone fitting into a concave surface of another bone (Figure 9.10b). Movement is primarily flexion or extension in a single plane.. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Hinge Joint Convex surface of one bones fits into concave surface of 2nd bone Uniaxial like a door hinge Examples Knee, elbow, ankle, interphalangeal joints Movements produced flexion = decreasing the joint angle extension = increasing the angle hyperextension = opening the joint beyond the anatomical position Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

In a pivot joint, a round or pointed surface of one bone fits into a ring formed by another bone and a ligament (Figure 9.10c). Movement is rotational and monaxial. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Pivot Joint Rounded surface of bone articulates with ring formed by 2nd bone & ligament Monoaxial since it allows only rotation around longitudinal axis Examples Proximal radioulnar joint supination pronation Atlanto-axial joint turning head side to side “no” Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

In an condyloid joint, an oval-shaped condyle of one bone fits into an elliptical cavity of another bone (Figure 9.10d). Movements are flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, and circumduction. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Condyloid or Ellipsoidal Joint
Oval-shaped projection fits into oval depression Biaxial = flex/extend or abduct/adduct is possible Examples wrist and metacarpophalangeal joints for digits 2 to 5 Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

A saddle joint contains one bone whose articular surface is saddle-shaped and another bone whose articular surface is shaped like a rider sitting in the saddle. Movements are flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, and circumduction (Figure 9.10e). Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Saddle Joint One bone saddled-shaped; other bone fits as a person would sitting in that saddle Biaxial Circumduction allows tip of thumb travel in circle Opposition allows tip of thumb to touch tip of other fingers Example trapezium of carpus and metacarpal of the thumb Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

In a ball-and-socket joint, the ball-shaped surface of one bone fits into the cuplike depression of another (Figure 9.10f). Movements are flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, rotation, and circumduction. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Ball and Socket Joint Ball fitting into a cuplike depression
Multiaxial flexion/extension abduction/adduction rotation Examples (only two!) shoulder joint hip joint Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

SELECTED JOINTS OF THE BODY

Tempromandibular Joint (TMJ) (Exhibit 9.1 and Figure 9.11)
The TMJ is a combined hinge and planar joint formed by the condylar process of the mandible, the mandibular fossa, and the articular tubercle of the temporal bone. Movements include opening and closing and protraction and retraction of the jaw. When dislocation occurs, the mouth remains open. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Temporomandibular Joint
Synovial joint Articular disc Gliding above disc Hinge below disc Movements depression elevation protraction retraction lateral medial Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Temporoman-dibular Joint
Synovial joint Articular disc Gliding above disc Hinge below disc Movements depression elevation protraction retraction Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Shoulder Joint (Exhibit 9.2 and Figure 9.12).
This is a ball-and-socket joint formed by the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula. Movements at the joint include flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial and lateral rotation, and circumduction of the arm . This joint shows extreme freedom of movement at the expense of stability. Rotator cuff injury and dislocation or separated shoulder are common injuries to this joint. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Shoulder Joint Head of humerus and glenoid cavity of scapula
Ball and socket All types of movement Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Glenohumeral (Shoulder) Joint
Articular capsule from glenoid cavity to anatomical neck Glenoid labrum deepens socket Many nearby bursa (subacromial) Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Supporting Structures at Shoulder
Associated ligaments strengthen joint capsule Transverse humeral ligament holds biceps tendon in place Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Rotator Cuff Muscles Attach humerus to scapula
Encircle the joint supporting the capsule Hold head of humerus in socket Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Elbow Joint (Exhibit 9.3 and Figure 9.13)
This is a hinge joint formed by the trochlea of the humerus, the trochlear notch of the ulna, and the head of the radius. Movements at this joint are flexion and extension of the forearm. Tennis elbow, little elbows, and dislocation of the radial head are common injuries to this joint. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Articular Capsule of the Elbow Joint
lateral aspect medial aspect Radial annular ligament hold head of radius in place Collateral ligaments maintain integrity of joint Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Hip Joint (Exhibit 9.4 and Figure 9.14)
This ball-and-socket joint is formed by the head of the femur and the acetabulum of the hipbone. Movements at this joint include flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, and medial and lateral rotation of the thigh. This is an extremely stable joint due to the bones making up the joint and the accessory ligaments and muscles. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Hip Joint Head of femur and acetabulum of hip bone
Ball and socket type of joint All types of movement possible Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Hip Joint Structures Acetabular labrum
Ligament of the head of the femur Articular capsule Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Hip Joint Capsule Dense, strong capsule reinforced by ligaments
iliofemoral ligament ischiofemoral ligament pubofemoral ligament One of strongest structures in the body Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Knee Joints (Exhibit 9.5 and Figure 9.15)
This is the largest and most complex joint of the body and consists of three joints within a single synovial cavity. Movements at this joint include flexion, extension, slight medial rotation, and lateral rotation of the leg in a flexed position. Some common injuries are rupture of the tibial colateral ligament and a dislocation of the knee. Refer to Tables 9.3 and 9.4 to integrate bones, joint classifications, and movements. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Tibiofemoral Joint Between femur, tibia and patella
Hinge joint between tibia and femur Gliding joint between patella and femur Flexion, extension, and slight rotation of tibia on femur when knee is flexed Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Lateral & medial menisci = articular discs Many bursa Vulnerable joint
Tibiofemoral Joint Articular capsule mostly ligs & tendons Lateral & medial menisci = articular discs Many bursa Vulnerable joint Knee injuries damage ligaments & tendons since bones do not fit together well Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

External Views of Knee Joint
Patella is part of joint capsule anteriorly Rest of articular capsule is extracapsular ligaments Fibular and tibial collateral ligaments Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Intracapsular Structures of Knee
Medial meniscus C-shaped fibrocartilage Lateral meniscus nearly circular Posterior cruciate ligament Anterior cruciate ligament Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

FACTORS AFFECTING CONTACT AND RANGE OF MOTION AT SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Structure and shape of the articulating bone Strength and tautness of the joint ligaments Arrangement and tension of the muscles Contact of soft parts Hormones Disuse AGING AND JOINTS Various aging effects on joints include decreased production of synovial fluid, a thinning of the articular cartilage, and loss of ligament length and flexibility. The effects of aging on joints are due to genetic factors as well as wear and tear on joints. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Arthroscopy & Arthroplasty
Arthroscopy = examination of joint instrument size of pencil remove torn knee cartilages & repair ligaments small incision only Arthroplasty = replacement of joints total hip replaces acetabulum & head of femur plastic socket & metal head knee replacement common Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Techniques for cartilage replacement
In cartilage transplantation chondrocytes are removed from the patient, grown in culture, and then placed in the damaged joint. Eroded cartilage may be replaced with synthetic materials Researchers are also examining the use of stem cells to replace cartilage. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES: Rheumatism and Arthritis
Osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease commonly known as “wear-and-tear” arthritis. It is characterized by deterioration of articular cartilage and bone spur formation. It is noninflammatory and primarily affects weight-bearing joints. Gouty arthritis is a condition in which sodium urate crystals are deposited in soft tissues of joints, causing inflammation, swelling, and pain. If not treated, bones at affected joints will eventually fuse, rendering the joints immobile. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Hip Replacement Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES:
Lyme disease is a bacterial disease which is transmitted by deer ticks. Symptoms include joint stiffness, fevers, chills, headache, and stiff neck. Ankylosing spondylitis affects joints between the vertebrae and between the sacrum and hip bone. Its cause is unknown. Ankle Sprains and Fractures: The ankle is the most frequently injured major joint. Sprains are the most common injury to the ankle; they are treated with RICE. A fracture of the distal leg that involves both the medial and lateral malleoli is called a Pott’s fracture. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Rheumatoid Arthritis Autoimmune disorder Cartilage attacked
Inflammation, swelling & pain Final step is fusion of joint Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Osteoarthritis Degenerative joint disease aging, wear & tear
Noninflammatory---no swelling only cartilage is affected not synovial membrane Deterioration of cartilage produces bone spurs restrict movement Pain upon awakening--disappears with movement Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

Gouty Arthritis Urate crystals build up in joints---pain
waste product of DNA & RNA metabolism builds up in blood deposited in cartilage causing inflammation & swelling Bones fuse Middle-aged men with abnormal gene Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e

The Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton Lecture Outline

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The Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton Lecture Outline

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