1. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chapter 22 Evolution decent with Modification

2. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings You should now be able to: 1.Describe the contributions to evolutionary theory made by Linnaeus, Cuvier, Lyell, Lamarck, Malthus, and Wallace 2.Describe Lamarck’s theories, and explain why they have been rejected 3.Explain what Darwin meant by “descent with modification” 4.List and explain Darwin’s four observations and two inferences Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

3. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 5.Explain why an individual organism cannot evolve 6.Describe at least four lines of evidence for evolution by natural selection Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

4. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Theories of Evolution Origin Myths/Cosmologies – Greek – Prometheus – Genesis Left: Prometheus and Athena Top: God and Adam Western examples

5. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ancient Greek philosopher Anaxiamander (611- 547 B.C.) and the Roman philosopher Lucretius (99-55 B.C.) conceived of the idea that all living things were related and that they had changed over time. Lucretius

6. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Aristotle’s Great Chain of Being (Scala Naturae)

7. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Comte de Buffon (Georges Louis Leclerc) 1707-1788 Early Ideas about Evolution Baron Cuvier 1769-1832 Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744-1829 Erasmus Darwin 1731-1802

8. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Other Theories Creationism accounts for biological diversity by referring to the divine act of Creation as described in Genesis.Creationism Catastrophism is a modified version of Creationism, which accounts for the fossil record by positing divinely authored worldwide disasters that wiped out the creatures represented in the fossil record, who were then supplanted by newer, created species.Catastrophism Intelligent Design states that modern physics and cosmology have uncovered evidence for intelligence in the structure of the universe and this intelligence seems to act with us in mind and that the universe as a whole shows evidence of design.Intelligent Design

9. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Jean Baptiste Lamarck, 1744-1829 French geologist and naturalist published Philosophie Zoologique in 1809 speculated about mechanisms of biological evolution, offered no evidence Lyell discussed Lamarck’s ideas in his Principles of Geology

10. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ideas of Lamarck that were rejected by Darwin evolution is a process in which living things gradually become more perfect (more human-like) because species that evolve and improve leave a gap, new species must be continually created by spontaneous creation the inheritance of acquired characteristics is the mechanism of evolution (but inheritance of acquired characteristics was not entirely rejected by Darwin)

11. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Charles Darwin: failed medical student, failed divinity student, ardent beetle collector, naturalist on HMS Beagle

12. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, 1831 - 1836 90 feet of ship, 74 people living together for 5 years...

13. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Darwin’s voyage on HMS Beagle took five years and went east to west, staying largely within the SE trade winds in the southern hemisphere. This is a favorite route for cruisers today, but not racers, who prefer to go west to east and stay in the roaring forties around Antartica.

14. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Understanding the Depth of Time James Hutton 1726-1797 Charles Lyell 1797 - 1875

15. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Populations Thomas Malthus 1766-1834 Understanding Populations Thomas Malthus 1766-1834

16. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) Darwin developed ideas on natural selection in early 1840s (1844 essay), but did not publish He received a letter from Wallace in 1858 outlining natural selection His friends organized an 1858 presentation in London of Wallace’s and Darwin’s work 1859 publication of Origin of Species

17. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Darwin and Wallace Volumes

18. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Overview: Darwin Introduces a Revolutionary Theory A new era of biology began on November 24, 1859 – The day Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection

19. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Origin of Species – Focused biologists’ attention on the great diversity of organisms Figure 22.1

20. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Darwin made two major points in his book – He presented evidence that the many species of organisms presently inhabiting the Earth are descendants of ancestral species – He proposed a mechanism for the evolutionary process, natural selection

21. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 22.1: The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by unchanging species In order to understand why Darwin’s ideas were revolutionary – We need to examine his views in the context of other Western ideas about Earth and its life

22. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The historical context of Darwin’s life and ideas Figure 22.2 Linnaeus (classification) Hutton (gradual geologic change) Lamarck (species can change) Malthus (population limits) Cuvier (fossils, extinction) Lyell (modern geology) Darwin (evolution, nutural selection) Mendel (inheritance) Wallace (evolution, natural selection) 1750 American RevolutionFrench Revolution U.S. Civil War 1800 1850 1900 1795Hutton proposes his theory of gradualism. 1798 Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.” 1809 Lamarck publishes his theory of evolution. 1830 Lyell publishes Principles of Geology. 1831–1836 Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle. Darwin begins his notebooks on the origin of species. 1837 Darwin writes his essay on the origin of species. 1844 Wallace sends his theory to Darwin. 1858 The Origin of Species is published. 1859 Mendel publishes inheritance papers. 1865

23. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Resistance to the Idea of Evolution The Origin of Species – Shook the deepest roots of Western culture – Challenged a worldview that had been prevalent for centuries

24. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Scale of Nature and Classification of Species The Greek philosopher Aristotle – Viewed species as fixed and unchanging The Old Testament of the Bible – Holds that species were individually designed by God and therefore perfect

25. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Carolus Linnaeus – Interpreted organismal adaptations as evidence that the Creator had designed each species for a specific purpose – Was a founder of taxonomy, classifying life’s diversity “for the greater glory of God”

26. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fossils, Cuvier, and Catastrophism The study of fossils – Helped to lay the groundwork for Darwin’s ideas Fossils are remains or traces of organisms from the past – Usually found in sedimentary rock, which appears in layers or strata Figure 22.3

27. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Paleontology, the study of fossils – Was largely developed by French scientist Georges Cuvier Cuvier opposed the idea of gradual evolutionary change – And instead advocated catastrophism, speculating that each boundary between strata represents a catastrophe

28. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 22-15 Bristolia insolens Bristolia bristolensis Bristolia harringtoni Bristolia mohavensis Latham Shale dig site, San Bernardino County, California Depth (meters) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 1 2 3 3 3 1 2 4 4

29. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Theories of Gradualism Gradualism – Is the idea that profound change can take place through the cumulative effect of slow but continuous processes

30. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Geologists Hutton and Lyell – Perceived that changes in Earth’s surface can result from slow continuous actions still operating today – Exerted a strong influence on Darwin’s thinking

31. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve – Through use and disuse and the inheritance of acquired traits – But the mechanisms he proposed are unsupported by evidence Figure 22.4

32. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 22.2: In The Origin of Species, Darwin proposed that species change through natural selection As the 19th century dawned – It was generally believed that species had remained unchanged since their creation, but a major change would challenge this thinking

33. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Darwin’s Research As a boy and into adulthood, Charles Darwin – Had a consuming interest in nature Soon after Darwin received his B.A. degree – He was accepted on board the HMS Beagle, which was about to embark on a voyage around the world

34. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Darwin’s Focus on Adaptation As Darwin reassessed all that he had observed during the voyage of the Beagle – He began to perceive adaptation to the environment and the origin of new species as closely related processes

35. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings From studies made years after Darwin’s voyage – Biologists have concluded that this is indeed what happened to the Galápagos finches Figure 22.6a–c (a) Cactus eater. The long, sharp beak of the cactus ground finch (Geospiza scandens) helps it tear and eat cactus flowers and pulp. (c) Seed eater. The large ground finch (Geospiza magnirostris) has a large beak adapted for cracking seeds that fall from plants to the ground. (b) Insect eater. The green warbler finch (Certhidea olivacea) uses its narrow, pointed beak to grasp insects.

36. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings In 1844, Darwin wrote a long essay on the origin of species and natural selection – But he was reluctant to introduce his theory publicly, anticipating the uproar it would cause In June 1858 Darwin received a manuscript from Alfred Russell Wallace – Who had developed a theory of natural selection similar to Darwin’s Darwin quickly finished The Origin of Species – And published it the next year

37. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Origin of Species Darwin developed two main ideas – Evolution explains life’s unity and diversity – Natural selection is a cause of adaptive evolution

38. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Descent with Modification The phrase descent with modification – Summarized Darwin’s perception of the unity of life – States that all organisms are related through descent from an ancestor that lived in the remote past

39. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings In the Darwinian view, the history of life is like a tree – With multiple branchings from a common trunk to the tips of the youngest twigs that represent the diversity of living organisms Figure 22.7 Hyracoidea (Hyraxes) Sirenia (Manatees and relatives) Years ago Millions of years ago Deinotherium Mammut Stegodon Mammuthus Platybelodon Barytherium Moeritherium Elephas maximus (Asia) Loxodonta africana (Africa) Loxodonta cyclotis (Africa)

40. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Natural Selection and Adaptation Evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr – Has dissected the logic of Darwin’s theory into three inferences based on five observations

41. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Observation #1: For any species, population sizes would increase exponentially – If all individuals that are born reproduced successfully Figure 22.8

42. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Observation #2: Nonetheless, populations tend to be stable in size – Except for seasonal fluctuations Observation #3: Resources are limited Inference #1: Production of more individuals than the environment can support – Leads to a struggle for existence among individuals of a population, with only a fraction of their offspring surviving

43. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Observation #4: Members of a population vary extensively in their characteristics – No two individuals are exactly alike Figure 22.9

44. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Observation #5: Much of this variation is heritable Inference #2: Survival depends in part on inherited traits – Individuals whose inherited traits give them a high probability of surviving and reproducing are likely to leave more offspring than other individuals

45. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Inference #3: This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce – Will lead to a gradual change in a population, with favorable characteristics accumulating over generations

46. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Artificial Selection In the process of artificial selection – Humans have modified other species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals that possess desired traits Figure 22.10 Terminal bud Lateral buds Brussels sprouts Cabbage Flower cluster Leaves Cauliflower Flower and stems Broccoli Wild mustard Kohlrabi Stem Kale

47. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Summary of Natural Selection Natural selection is differential success in reproduction – That results from the interaction between individuals that vary in heritable traits and their environment

48. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Natural selection can produce an increase over time – In the adaptation of organisms to their environment Figure 22.11 (a)A flower mantid in Malaysia (b)A stick mantid in Africa

49. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings If an environment changes over time – Natural selection may result in adaptation to these new conditions

50. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 22.3: Darwin’s theory explains a wide range of observations Darwin’s theory of evolution – Continues to be tested by how effectively it can account for additional observations and experimental outcomes

51. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Natural Selection in Action Two examples – Provide evidence for natural selection

52. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Differential Predation in Guppy Populations Researchers have observed natural selection – Leading to adaptive evolution in guppy populations Reznick and Endler transplanted guppies from pike-cichlid pools to killifish pools and measured the average age and size of guppies at maturity over an 11-year period (30 to 60 generations). EXPERIMENT Pools with killifish, but not guppies prior to transplant Experimental transplant of guppies Predator: Killifish; preys mainly on small guppies Guppies: Larger at sexual maturity than those in “pike-cichlid pools” Predator: Pike-cichlid; preys mainly on large guppies Guppies: Smaller at sexual maturity than those in “killifish pools” Figure 22.12

53. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings RESULTS After 11 years, the average size and age at maturity of guppies in the transplanted populations increased compared to those of guppies in control populations. 161.5 185.6 67.5 Weight of guppies at maturity (mg) Age of guppies at maturity (days) 92.3 48.5 Control Population: Guppies from pools with pike-cichlids as predators Experimental Population: Guppies transplanted to pools with killifish as predators 76.1 Males Females 85.7 58.2 Males Females CONCLUSION Reznick and Endler concluded that the change in predator resulted in different variations in the population (larger size and faster maturation) being favored. Over a relatively short time, this altered selection pressure resulted in an observable evolutionary change in the experimental population.

54. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Evolution of Drug-Resistant HIV In humans, the use of drugs – Selects for pathogens that through chance mutations are resistant to the drugs’ effects Natural selection is a cause of adaptive evolution

55. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Researchers have developed numerous drugs to combat HIV – But using these medications selects for viruses resistant to the drugs Figure 22.13 Patient No. 1 Patient No. 2 Patient No. 3 Percent of HIV resistant to 3TC Weeks

56. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The ability of bacteria and viruses to evolve rapidly – Poses a challenge to our society

57. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Homology, Biogeography, and the Fossil Record Evolutionary theory – Provides a cohesive explanation for many kinds of observations

58. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Homology – Is similarity resulting from common ancestry

59. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Anatomical Homologies Homologous structures between organisms – Are anatomical resemblances that represent variations on a structural theme that was present in a common ancestor Figure 22.14 HumanCat Whale Bat

60. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Comparative embryology – Reveals additional anatomical homologies not visible in adult organisms Figure 22.15 Pharyngeal pouches Post-anal tail Chick embryo Human embryo

61. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Vestigial organs – Are some of the most intriguing homologous structures – Are remnants of structures that served important functions in the organism’s ancestors

62. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Molecular Homologies Biologists also observe homologies among organisms at the molecular level – Such as genes that are shared among organisms inherited from a common ancestor

63. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Homologies and the Tree of Life The Darwinian concept of an evolutionary tree of life – Can explain the homologies that researchers have observed

64. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Anatomical resemblances among species – Are generally reflected in their molecules, their genes, and their gene products Figure 22.16 Species Human Rhesus monkey Mouse Chicken Frog Lamprey 14% 54% 69% 87% 95% 100% Percent of Amino Acids That Are Identical to the Amino Acids in a Human Hemoglobin Polypeptide

65. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Biogeography Darwin’s observations of biogeography, the geographic distribution of species, formed an important part of his theory of evolution Islands have many endemic species that are often closely related to species on the nearest mainland or island Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

66. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Earth’s continents were formerly united in a single large continent called Pangaea, but have since separated by continental drift An understanding of continent movement and modern distribution of species allows us to predict when and where different groups evolved Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

67. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Sugar glider AUSTRALIA NORTH AMERICA Flying squirrel Figure 22.17 Some similar mammals that have adapted to similar environments – Have evolved independently from different ancestors

68. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Fossil Record The succession of forms observed in the fossil record – Is consistent with other inferences about the major branches of descent in the tree of life

69. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Darwinian view of life – Predicts that evolutionary transitions should leave signs in the fossil record Paleontologists – Have discovered fossils of many such transitional forms Figure 22.18

70. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings What Is Theoretical about the Darwinian View of Life? In science, a theory – Accounts for many observations and data and attempts to explain and integrate a great variety of phenomena

71. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection – Integrates diverse areas of biological study and stimulates many new research questions

72. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings What Is Theoretical About Darwin’s View of Life? In science, a theory accounts for many observations and data and attempts to explain and integrate a great variety of phenomena Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection integrates diverse areas of biological study and stimulates many new research questions Ongoing research adds to our understanding of evolution Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

73. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 22-UN1 Observations Over time, favorable traits accumulate in the population. Inferences and Individuals in a population vary in their heritable characteristics. Organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support. Individuals that are well suited to their environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals

74. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 22-UN2

75. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 22-UN3