1. Historical Foundations
Chapter 4

2. Historical Foundations
Identify events that served as catalysts for physical education, exercise science, and sport’s growth.
Identify some of the outstanding leaders in the fields.
Discuss recent developments in physical education, exercise science, and sport.
Draw implications from history of our fields for the future of physical education, exercise science, and sport

3. Sport History Emerged as a subdiscipline in the late 1960s
and early 1970s.
“… field of scholarly inquiry with multiple and often intersecting foci, including exercise, the body, play, games, athletics, sports, physical recreations, health, and leisure.” (Struna)
How has the past shaped sport and its experiences today?
1973: North American Society for Sport History held its first meeting.

4. Sample Areas of Study...
How did urbanization influence the development of sports in America?
How did the sports activities of Native Americans influence the recreational pursuits of the early colonists?
How have Greek ideals influences the development of sportsmanship?
How did segregation impact sports opportunities for blacks?
What factors influenced the inclusion of physical education in the school curriculum?

5. Greece “Golden Age” of physical education and sport
Unity of the mind, body and spirit
“Body beautiful”
Areté – the pursuit of excellence
Vital part of the education of every Greek boy
National festivals
Olympic Games

6. Rome Exercise for health and military purposes.
Greek gymnastics were introduced to Rome after the conquest of Greece but were not popular
Rome did not believe in the “body beautiful”
Preferred to be spectators rather than participants
Preferred professionalism to amateurism.
Exciting “blood sports”: gladiatorial combats and chariot races. “Duel to the death” or satisfaction of spectators.

7. Germany
Period of nationalism - focus on development of strong citizens through school and community programs of physical education
Physical education should be included in the school curriculum – programs emphasize the development of strength

8. German Leaders
Basedow ( ) – designed physical education program for school students based on philosophy of naturalism; first school in modern Europe that included PE as part of the educational curriculum.
Guts Muths ( ) – extensive program of outdoor gymnastics; stressed the value of physical education in the development and education of children.

9. German Leaders
Jahn ( ) – Turnverein movement to mold youth into strong, hardy citizens capable of overthrowing foreign control.
Spiess ( ) – advocated for the inclusion of gymnastics within the school curriculum; emphasis on professions, use of trained teachers, and contribution of gymnastics to total development of child

10. Sweden Scientific study of physical education
Use anatomy and physiology to study the effects of physical education on the body
Influenced by nationalism

11. Sweden Leaders Per Ling (1776-1839) Hjalmar Ling (1820-1886)
Design of gymnastic programs to meet specific individual needs
Different types of gymnastics: Educational, military, medical and aesthetics gymnastics
Teachers of physical education must have foundational knowledge of the effects of exercise on the human body.
Hjalmar Ling ( )
Significant role in development school gymnastics and curriculum
Day’s Order – daily exercises for school children

12. Denmark Franz Nachtegall (1777-1847) – “father of Danish gymnastics
Worked with Danish public schools to incorporate PE into their curriculum
Established a school to train teachers of gymnastics for the army and for the schools
Gymnastics emphasized fitness and strength, with formalized exercises being performed on command

13. Great Britain Home of outdoor sports and recreational pursuits
Maclaren ( )
Eager to make physical training a science; system adopted by the British Army
Health is more important than strength
Exercise adapted to the individual
Physical education essential in school curriculum
Muscular Christianity
Sport contributes to the development of moral character
Reconciles sport and religion

14. PE in the U.S. Influenced by European ideals
Systems of gymnastics (exercises)
Philosophies of physical education
Growth of influence of Ancient Asian cultures
Yoga
Martial arts
Relationships between the mind, body, and spirit

15. Colonial Period ( )
Colonists led an agrarian existence - physical activity through performing tasks essential to living and survival.
Colonists brought sports with them from their native lands.
Puritans denounced play as evil; recreational pursuits frowned upon.
Reading, writing, and arithmetic in schools, not physical education. 2

16. National Period ( )
Charles Beck ( ) introduced German gymnastics to his students at the Round Hill School
Charles Follen ( ) organized exercise classes based on the German system for his students at Harvard University
Catherine Beecher ( ) 1828 – developed a program of calisthenics performed to music, which included Swedish exercises, to improve the health and vitality of her students at the Hartford Female Seminary. 3

17. National Period (1784-1861) 1839 - Invention of baseball
1851 – first national Turnfest held in Philadelphia
1852: First intercollegiate competition: a crew race between Harvard and Yale. Intercollegiate athletics becomes increasingly common on college campuses
Horseracing, foot races, rowing, and gambling on sport events popular 3

18. Civil War Period until 1900 Dioclesian Lewis (1823-1886)
Developed system of “light” gymnastics
1861 – established Normal Institute for Physical Education in Boston to train teachers
Edward Hitchcock ( )
1861 – Director of Hygiene and Physical Education at Amherst College
Pioneering work in the scientific approach to physical education
Anthropomorphic measurement incorporated into program to assess outcomes
1885 – First president of the Association for the Advancement of Physical Education 4

19. Civil War Period until 1900 Dudley Sargent (1849-1924)
1879 – Director of Hemenway Gymnasium at Harvard University
Scientific and comprehensive approach to physical education; used anthropomorphic measurement to develop individualized conditioning programs for students
1881 – Sanatory Gymnasium to prepare teachers in his approach
William Anderson (1860 – 1947)
Played an instrumental role in the founding of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education in 1885
1885 – Director of Physical Training at Adelphi Academy in Brooklyn

20. Civil War Period until 1900 Delphina Hanna (1854-1941)
1885 – Accepted teaching position at Oberlin College where, in 1903, became the first woman full professor of physical education in the US
Developed training program for prospective teachers which evolved into one of the first professional preparation programs
George Fitz ( )
Research physiologist at Harvard.
Emphasized the need for physical education programs to be based on scientific principles so that the actual benefits of exercise could be determined
1892 – established a formal exercise physiology lab at Harvard where he and his students conducted research on physiological effects of physical activity

21. Civil War Period until 1900 Hartvig Nissen (1855-1924) –
Pioneered in the promotion of Swedish system of gymnastics in the US
Leadership role in physical education for the Boston Public School System where he influenced adoption of Swedish gymnastics
Baron Nils Posse ( )
Leader in the promotion of Swedish system of gymnastics in the US
1889 – helped establish the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics to train teachers in the Swedish system

22. Civil War Period until 1900 Amy Morris Homans (1848-1933)
1889 – Director of the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics
Mary Hemenway, Bostonian philanthropist, underwrote the establishment of the school
Played an influential role in getting the Boston Public School system to adopt the Swedish system of gymnastics
Luther Gulick ( )
Instrumental role in YMCA International Training School at Springfield, MA
Designed the YMCA logo, with the equilateral triangle representing the unity of the mind, body and spirit and importance of developing the whole person
1906 – helps form the Playground Association of America

23. Civil War Period until 1900 Battle of the Systems
Late 1880s sparked debate among physical educators regarding which system of gymnastics should serve as the curriculum for American schools.
1880 – Boston Conference on Physical Training
No consensus on which system would best serve needs of American people
Posse – need an American system designed for the American people

24. Civil War Period until 1900 Growth of American sport in popularity
Tennis
Golf
Bowling
Basketball (Naismith)
Founding of forerunner of Amateur Athletic Association (AAU)
Revival of Olympics in Athens
Colleges and universities develop departments and expand programs

25. Civil War Period until 1900
1851 – first YMCA opens up in US; 1885 YMCA training school established in Springfield, MA.
Expansion of intercollegiate athletics
Abuses raise concerns
Establishment of governing bodies
Emphasis on teacher preparation, scientific basis of PE, diagnosis and prescription of activity
Organized PE programs in elementary and secondary schools
Founding of the forerunner of AAHPERD 6

26. Early Twentieth Century (1900s-1940s)
Extensive interscholastic programs - controversy over programs for girls
Growth of intramural programs and emphasis on games and sports in our programs
Increased concern for the physically underdeveloped in our society
Playground movement
Higher standards for teacher training (4 year preparation)
NCAA established to monitor collegiate athletics 8

27. Early Twentieth Century (1900s-1940s)
Thomas Dennison Wood ( )
Called for the development of a “new” program of physical education, initially called “Natural Gymnastics”
His vision for “new” physical education calls for a program with an
“aim as broad as education itself… The great thought in physical education is not the education of physical nature, but the relationship of physical training to complete education , and then the effort to make the physical contribute its full share to the life of the individual …”
Robert Tait McKenzie ( )
Physician, physical educator, and noted artist-sculptor
Helped develop physical education programs for individuals with disabilities
Authored many books, including Exercise in Education and Medicine 8

28. Early Twentieth Century (1900s-1940s)
Clark Hetherington ( )
1910 – articulates the four objectives of physical education as organic (fitness), psychomotor development, character development, and intellectual development
Credited with inventing the phrase “new physical education” to describe Wood’s approach
Rosalind Cassidy ( )
Advocate of “education through the physical” – carefully designed programs of physical education could contribute to the development of the whole person
Prolific writer 8

29. Early Twentieth Century (1900s-1940s)
Jesse F. Williams ( )
Advocate of “education through the physical” philosophy of physical education
Stressed the development of social responsibility and moral values through physical education and athletics
1927 – Principles of Physical Education
Jay B. Nash ( )
Physical education should give students the ability to use their leisure time in a worthy manner
Recreational skills for enjoyment throughout the lifespan 8

30. Early Twentieth Century (1900s-1940s)
Charles McCloy ( )
Active in research and measurement, including anthropometry
Advocated for the “education of the physical” approach to physical education
School physical education’s unique contribution to the education of the individual is organic and psychomotor development
Wrote Philosophical Bases for Physical Education 8

31. Early Twentieth Century (1900s-1940s)
Extensive interscholastic programs - controversy over programs for girls
Growth of intramural programs and emphasis on games and sports in our programs
Increased concern for the physically underdeveloped in our society
Playground movement
Higher standards for teacher training (4 year preparation)
NCAA established to monitor collegiate athletics 8

32. World War I ( )
Physical educators developed conditioning programs for armed forces .
After the war, health statistics revealed that the nation was in poor shape (1/3 of men were physically unfit for armed service).
Growth and upgrade of PE programs in schools following war due to legislation in some states. 10

33. Golden Twenties ( )
Move away from formal systems of gymnastics toward games, sports, and valuable recreation and leisure time.
“New” physical education emphasized contribution to the total development of the individual; “education through the physical” vs. “education of the physical”.
Calls for reform of collegiate athletics due to increasing professionalism, public entertainment, and commercialization.
Women’s programs increase staff, activities, required participation, and facilities. 11

34. Depression Years ( )
Economic forces lead to cutbacks in PE programs and growth of recreational programs.
Physical educators more involved in recreational programs for the unemployed.
Growth of interscholastic, intercollegiate and women’s programs.
Charles McCloy ( ) – advocated “education of the physical” and stressed the importance documenting results and measuring progress of using scientific data 12

35. Mid-twentieth Century (1940-1970)
Impact of WW II physical training programs
Physical fitness movement
President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports
Athletics
Increase opportunities for girls and women
Increased interest in lifetime sports
Sport programs below high school level increase
Increased number of intramural programs 13

36. Mid-twentieth Century (1940-1970)
Professional preparation
Colleges and universities increase programs for teachers
American College of Sports Medicine (1954)
National Athletic Trainers’ Association (1950)
Programs for individuals with disabilities
Special Olympics (1968)
Research grows in importance and becomes increasingly specialized 14

37. Significant Recent Developments
Growth of the discipline
Franklin Henry in 1964 calls for the study of the academic discipline of physical education
During 1970s knowledge base expands and subdisciplines emerge
Debate about the primary focus of the field; in late 1990s there is a growing consensus that the focus should be physical activity
1989 – American Academy of Physical Education changes its name to the American Academy of Kinesiology and Physical Education
Ongoing debate about what is the best name for the discipline 15

38. Significant Recent Developments
Disease prevention and health promotion
Healthy People
Objectives for the Nation
Surgeon General’s Report on Physical Activity and Health
Healthy People 2000
Healthy People 2010
Legislation promoting opportunities for girls and women, and people with disabilities
Increased technology 15

39. School Physical Education
Recognition of the critical role school PE in achieving national health goals
Fitness status and physical activity of children and youth is a concern
Congressional support for high-quality, daily physical education
Daily PE declines from 42% in 1991 to 28% in 2003.
Only one state, Illinois, requires daily PE for all students, K-12
National Content Standards offer a national framework
Emergence of new curricular models

40. Physical Fitness and Participation in Physical Activity
Expansion of the fitness movement and involvement in physical activity
Shift from performance- to health-related fitness to an emphasis on moderate-intensity physical activity
Physical inactivity recognized as a major health problem

41. The Growth of Sport
Phenomenal growth of participation in sports at all levels
Youth sports involve more than 25 million children
Interscholastic sports involve more than 7 million boys and girls
Trend toward early specialization

42. The Growth of Sport
Intercollegiate sports involves nearly 400,000 athletes
Growth of sport as “big business” in some institutions
Growth of recreational sport leagues and amateur sports for adults of all ages
Professional sports continue to expand including professional leagues for women

43. Girls and Women in Sport
Rapid growth since the passage of Title IX in 1972
Changes in governance of intercollegiate sports
Challenges to Title IX
Changes in physical education classes following passage of Title IX

44. Programs for Individuals with Disabilities
Federal Legislation
PL Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
PL Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975
PL Amateur Sports Act of 1978
1986 – PL Education for All Handicapped Children Amendments
PL Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
1990 – Americans with Disabilities Act
1998 – PL Olympic and Amateur Sports Act
Paralympics 17

45. Olympics Rebirth of the Olympics in 1896
Centennial Olympics celebrated in Atlanta in 1996
Politicization of the Olympic Games
Evolving definitions of amateurism
“Fairness” issues in the Olympics
Addition of non-traditional sports
Commercialization of the Olympics

46. Technology Computer technology and sophisticated research equipment
Has led to record-breaking achievements for elite athletes in nearly all sports
Facility improvement
User-friendly technology such as heart rate monitors provide more specific information about individuals’ physical activity