1. 从另一个角度看教材 龚亚夫

2. Overview  Task-based language teaching  Curriculum goals and objectives  Task types  Teaching vocabulary  Critical thinking and reading  Grammar teaching

3. Traditionally… Curriculum designers and materials writers took as their point of departure the question, What are the grammatical, phonological, and lexical items to be taught? In other words, selection of classroom activities was driven by curriculum goals specified in phonological, morphosyntactic, and lexical terms. Nunan (1991)

4. Why task-based language teaching? Target task rationale: What is it that learners potentially or actually need to do with the target language? Psycholinguistic rationale: What are the psycholinguistic mechanisms underlying second language acquisition, and how can these be activated in the classroom? Nunan (1991) Socio-cultural rationale: learning arises not through interaction but in interaction Lantolf (2000)

5. Why task-based language teaching?  Tasks goals enable the program planner and materials writer to provide explicit links between the task and the broader curriculum it is designed to serve. 体现课程目标  The value of tasks is that they provide a purpose for the activity which goes beyond the practice of language for its own sake. Nunan (1991)

6. Psycholinguistic perspective  A task is a device that guides learners to engage in certain types of information-processing that are believed to be important for effective language use and /or for language acquisition from some theoretical standpoint.  Tasks are seen as the external means by which we can influence the mental computations that learners make. These computations determine how effectively they communicate and how they acquire language. Ellis (2000, 2003)

7. Why task-based language teaching? Mental computation: 询问、确认、分类、推断、区分、预测、总 结、创造、读图、反思、协商 …… 以往的功能结构方法是从语言系统的角度设 计课程与教学内容，任务型语言教学从学生 学习的角度来思考

8. Tradition and the trend Tradition Grammatical, phonological and lexical items to be taught. The specification of these items set the parameters for the selection of classroom activities Trend Tasks are conceptualized in terms of the curriculum goals, input data and activities or procedures which the learners undertake in the completion of the tasks

9. Multidimensional curriculum  The objectives of NEC: linguistic knowledge, language skills, cultural awareness, learning strategies and motivation and affective factors  Student participation, development of critical thinking skills, problem-solving, interpersonal communication skills as well as cooperation

10. Third generation tasks With third generation tasks, the scope widens further. In addition to the communicative and cognitive strategies, they also aim to develop the personality of students through the experience of learning a foreign language. They go further than the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill wider educational objectives, such as enhancing motivation and awareness, developing creativity and interpersonal skills… Littlewood (2001)

11. Task types:Cognitive Classifying: Putting things that are similar together in the groups Predicting: Predicting what is to come in the learning process Inducing: Looking for patterns and regularities Example: Study a conversation and discover the rule for forming the simple past tense Taking notes: Writing down the important information in a text in your own words Concept mapping: Showing the main ideas in a text in the form of a map Inferencing: Using what you know to learn something new Discriminating: Distinguishing between the main idea and the supporting information Diagramming: Using information from a text to label a diagram

12. Task types: Interpersonal Co-operating: Sharing ideas and learning with other students Example: Work in small groups to read a text and complete a table Role Playing: Predicting to be somebody else and using the language for the situation you are in Example: You are a reporter. Use the information from the reading to interview the writer

13. Task types: Linguistic Conversational patterns: Using expressions to start conversations and keep them going. Example: Match formulaic expressions to situations Practicing: Doing controlled exercise to improve knowledge and skills Using context: Using the surrounding context to guess the meaning of an unknown word, phrase, or concept Summarizing: Picking out and presenting the major points in a text in summary form Selective listening: Listening for key information without trying to understand every word Skimming: Reading quickly to get a general idea of a text

14. Task types:Affective Personalizing: Learners share their own opinions, feelings and ideas about a subject. Example: Read a letter from a friend in need and give advice Self-evaluating: Thinking about how well you did on a learning task, and rating yourself on a scale Reflecting: Thinking about ways you learn best

15. Task types: Creative Brainstorming: Thinking of as many new words and ideas as one can Example: Work in groups and think of a many occupations as you can Nunan (2004)

16. Assessment Criterion-referenced assessment: Criterion-referencing occurs when learner’s performance is described in relation to an explicit stated standards; e.g. a person’s ability may be reported in terms of a ‘can-do’ statement describing the kinds of tasks he or she can perform using the target language. Brindley (2001)

17. Task and performance  It seems that task accomplishment is the ultimate focus for evaluating human performance. It follows that L2 performance assessment and task-based approaches to language teaching and assessment will likely share a greatly deal of theoretical and practical common ground. Norris (1998 )

18. Tasks The language testers have increasingly recognized the value of tasks for assessing learners’ capacity to communicate in an L2. --Has a favourable washback effect; --Enables assessment to be more easily integrated into the learning process; --Provides learners with useful diagnostic feedback on progress and achievement Ellis (2003 )

19. Task-based testing Task-based testing is seen as a way of achieving a close correlation between test performance; i.e. what the testee does during the test, and the criterion performance, i.e. what the testee has to do in the real world, and thus ensuring the validity of the assessment. Ellis (2003)

20. 如何设计教案与任务 以行为动词来描述目标 : 1 能力表现（ performance), 即教学目标应该列出 学 习者需要能够做什么； 2 条件（ condition ），即能力表现的条件与环境； 3 标准（ criterion ），即目标应该描述学习者什么样 的表现是可以接受的。 Nunan （ 2007 ）也认为，在 能力描述的标准中，目标通常包含三个组成部分：一 是能力表现或任务描述 (performance or task statement) 。这一部分主要描述学习者能够做的事情。 二是对于语言能力表现或完成任务条件的描述。即在 何种情境下 (circumstances) 和条件下（ conditions ） 学生能完成这些任务。第三部分是对于完成任务标准 的描述。

21. 范例  在要求完成一个口语任务时，学习者要能对 一个英语为母语的人说出他 / 她的名字，地址 和电话号码，能拼出自己的名字、街道和城 市的名称，使得考试者能记录下来，达到 100% 的准确。  在一个真实的交际情境下，（条件），学生 将询问所购物品的价格（任务）。学生所说 的话可以使一个具有体谅心态的英语为本族 语的人可以理解（标准）。

22. Pre-task phase  Three purposes: ---to serve to introduce new language that learners can use while performing the task; ---to mobilize existing linguistic resources; ---to ease processing load, and to push learners to interpret tasks in more demanding ways Skehan (1998)

23. Pre-task phase Non-task preparation activities --- brain storming 大脑风暴 --- mind map 思维导图 Addressing linguistic demands of a task --- Predicting, i.e. asking learners to brainstorm a list of words related to the task title or topic --- Planning/ strategic planning

24. Teaching vocabulary  Readers need to work out which words belong together and form units of meaning– a ‘phrasing’ or ‘chunking’ process. They also need to recognize key words and phrases. Exemplar-based system “ 以范例为基础的 ” Rule-based system “ 以规则为基础的 ” Skehan (1996); Mitchel &Martin (2004)

25. Multi-word units--“chunks of language”, “lexical chunks”  Collocations 习惯搭配  Phrasal verbs 常用短语  Sentence frames 句子结构  Social formulae 社交套话  Discourse markers 语段连接词

26. Multiword units  The most fundamental guiding principle (for) those who are anxious to be proficient in foreign conversation… is this: Memorizing perfectly the largest number of common and useful word- groups! Palmer (1925) As a way of quickly developing fluency and of picking up native-like expressions, groups of words should be learned as units. Nation (2003)

27. Language acquisition research Lexico-semantic theory– a net work of associations, a web-like structure of interconnected links (Aitchison, 1987) Connect the word with already known words, the links is created, the learning takes place (Sŏkmen ) 当词汇增加到一定程度时，头脑 就会建立一个系统，使词汇有机地组织起 来，以便提取 --Creating word web

28. Promote a deep level of processing --- Better learning takes place when a deeper level of semantic processing is required because the words are encoded with elaboration Craik & Lockhart (1972) --- When students are asked to manipulate words, relate them to other words and to their own experiences, and then justify their choices, these words associations are reinforced. Sŏkmen

29. Semantic feature analysis Affective With wonder Because unexpecte d Because difficult to believe So as to cause confusion surprise + + astonish + + amaze + +

30. Classroom techniques and tasks Create a range of 5-16 encounters with a word in order for student to truly acquire it  Dictionary work: Sŏkmen  Semantic elaboration  Meaning-focused input activities  Deliberate learning activities  Meaning-focused output activities  Fluency activities

31. Critical thinking skills Critical thinking brings conscious awareness, skills, and standards to the process of observing, analyzing, reasoning, evaluating, reading, and communicating. Mayfield (2007)

32. Critical thinking— 22 comprehension strategies  Drawing conclusions  Understanding cause and effect  Making connections  Comparing view points  Evaluating ideas  Reading between the lines  Making judgments

33. 22 comprehension strategies (cont.)  Making comparisons  Interpreting meaning  Making inferences  Comparing characters  Reading a map  Interpreting graphs and charts  Making calculations  Examining reasons

34. 22 comprehension strategies (cont.)  Separating facts from opinion  Identifying the main idea  Organizing information  Sequencing  Summarizing  Recalling details  Synthesizing

35. Making judgments Highlight the three pieces of information in the text that you think everyone should know: Most important_________________ Second most important___________ Least important__________________

36. Developing alternative solutions With a group, brainstorm three different solutions to..’s problem. A __________________ B __________________ C ___________________ When you brainstorm, everyone contribute ideas. Write down every idea. ….

37. Examining reasons  Why do you think it’s necessary in this experiment to collect…? ____________________________  How do you think the author says to use…? _____________________________  Why do you think…? ____________________________

38. Consciousness-raising tasks (CR) 1 There is an attempt to isolate a specific linguistic feature for focused attention 2 The learners are provided with data that illustrate the targeted feature and they may also be provided with an explicit rule describing or explaining the feature. 3 The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the targeted feature. 4 learners may be optionally required to verbalize a rule describing the grammatical structure. Ellis (1991)

39. The post-task phase Three major pedagogical goals: -- 提供再做任务的机会（ to provide an opportunity for a repeat performance of the task ） -- 反思任务是怎样完成的（ to encourage reflection on how the task was performed ） -- 关注语言的形式（ to encourage attention to form ）

40. Reflecting on the task  Present a report on how they did the task and what they decided or discovered – oral or written  Summary the outcome of the task  Reflect or evaluate of their own performance (fluency, complicity or accuracy)  Metacognitive strategies 元认知策略 (planning, monitoring and evaluating)

41. The post-task phase  Reviewing of learner errors 反思错误  Consciousness-raising tasks 语法意识  Production-practice activities 操练活动  Noticing activities 注意语言的准确

42. Reviewing of learner errors  Teacher moves from group to group to listen and note down the errors  Address these errors with the whole class  - can be written on the board  - students can be invited to correct it  - listen again and edit their own performance  - teacher comments

43. Consciousness-raising tasks (CR)  The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the targeted features 通过 思考理解语法用法  Learners may be optionally required to verbalize a rule describing the grammatical structure 可以是学生口头表达  To direct students to attend explicitly to a specific form they used incorrectly or failed to use at all in the main task 补充不足

44. Production-practice activities  Repetition 重复活动  Substitution 替换练习  Gapped sentences 填空练习  Jumbled sentences 打乱的句子  Transformation drills 变换句型  Dialogues 对话

45. Consciousness-raising tasks  There is an attempt to isolate a specific linguistic feature for focused attention 就某一语法现象单 独讲解  The learners are provided with data that illustrate the targeted feature or an explicit rule describing or explaining the feature 给例子说明语法用法或 对语法详细描述

46. Consciousness-raising tasks  The learners are expected to utilize intellectual effort to understand the targeted features 通过思 考理解语法用法  Learners may be optionally required to verbalize a rule describing the grammatical structure 可以是 学生口头表达  To direct students to attend explicitly to a specific form they used incorrectly or failed to use at all in the main task 补充不足

47. Thanks!