1. Review: The life of Stars

2. Variable Stars Eclipsing binaries (stars do not change physically, only their relative position changes) Nova (two stars “collaborating” to produce “star eruption”) Cepheids (stars do change physically) RR Lyrae Stars (stars do change physically) Mira Stars (stars do change physically)

3. Binary Stars Some stars form binary systems – stars that orbit one another –visual binaries –spectroscopic binaries –eclipsing binaries Beware of optical doubles –stars that happen to lie along the same line of sight from Earth We can’t determine the mass of an isolated star, but of a binary star

4. Visual Binaries Members are well separated, distinguishable

5. Spectroscopic Binaries Too distant to resolve the individual stars Can be viewed indirectly by observing the back-and-forth Doppler shifts of their spectral lines

6. Eclipsing Binaries (Rare!) The orbital plane of the pair almost edge-on to our line of sight We observe periodic changes in the starlight as one member of the binary passes in front of the other

7. Cepheids Named after δ Cephei Period-Luminosity Relations Two types of Cepheids: –Type I: higher luminosity, metal-rich, Pop. 1 –Type II: lower lum., metal-poor, Population 2 Used as “standard candles” “yard-sticks” for distance measurement Cepheids in Andromeda Galaxies established the “extragalacticity” of this “nebula”

8. Cepheids Henrietta Leavitt (1908) discovers the period-luminosity relationship for Cepheid variables Period thus tells us luminosity, which then tells us the distance Since Cepheids are brighter than RR Lyrae, they can be used to measure out to further distances

9. Properties of Cepheids Period of pulsation: a few days Luminosity: 200-20000 suns Radius: 10-100 solar radii

10. Properties of RR Lyrae Stars Period of pulsation: less than a day Luminosity: 100 suns Radius: 5 solar radii

11. Spectroscopic Parallax Assuming distant stars are like those nearby, –from the spectrum of a main sequence star we can determine its absolute luminosity –Then, from the apparent brightness compared to absolute luminosity, we can determine the distance (B  L / d 2 again!) Good out to 1000 pc or so; accuracy of 25%

12. Distance Measurements with variable stars Extends the cosmic distance ladder out as far as we can see Cepheids – about 50 million ly In 1920 Hubble used this technique to measure the distance to Andromeda (about 2 million ly) Works best for periodic variables

13. Cepheids and RR Lyrae: Yard-Sticks Normal stars undergoing a phase of instability Cepheids are more massive and brighter than RR Lyrae Note: all RR Lyrae have the same luminosity Apparent brightness thus tells us the distance to them! –Recall: B  L/d 2

14. The Milky Way Appears as a milky band of light across the sky A small telescope reveals that it is composed of many stars (Galileo again!) Our knowledge of the Milky Way comes from a combination of observation and comparison to other galaxies

15. How do we know? Question: How can we say anything about our Milky Way, if we cannot see it from outside? Obviously a bogus picture of our milky way!

16. Enter: the Genius William Herschel (XVIII century) Simple model: –Assumed all stars have the same absolute brightness –Counts stars as a function of apparent magnitude –Brighter stars closer to us; fainter stars further away –Cut off in brightness corresponds to a cut off at a certain distance. Conclusion: there are no stars beyond a certain distance

17. Herschel’s Findings Stars thinned out very fast at right angles to Milky Way In the plane of the Milky Way the thinning was slower and depended upon the direction in which he looked Flaws: –Observations made only in visible spectrum –Did not take into account absorption by interstellar gas and dust

18. Discovering other Island Universes Data: Lots of nebulous spots known in the night sky Questions: What are they? All the same? Different things? Need more observations!  Build bigger telescopes

19. The first nebula discovered to have spiral structure: M51

20. Enter: next genius Harlow Shapley used variable stars, e.g. RR Lyrae stars, to map the distribution of globular clusters in the galaxy Found a spherical distribution about 30 kpc (30,000 pc) across –This is the true size of the galaxy Sun is (naturally!) not at the center – it’s about 26,000 ly out

21. Standing on the shoulders of Giants Shapley used methods developed by others to measure the distance to globulars Cepheid variables show luminosity-period correlations discovered by Henrietta Leavitt Shapley single-handedly increase the size of the universe tenfold!

22. Structure of a Spiral Galaxy Three main parts of a galaxy: –Bulge (center of galaxy) –Disk (rotating around center) –Halo (orbiting around bulge with randomly inclined orbits)

23. Properties of Bulge, Disk and Halo Disk Halo Bulge Highly flattened spherical football-shaped young and old stars only old stars young and old stars has Gas and dust none lots in center Star formation none since 10 billion yrs in inner regions White colored, reddish yellow-white blue spiral arms

24. An up-to-date “Reconstruction”