1. Scanning Probe Microscopy – Principle of Operation, Instrumentation, and Probes
Starting with some of the most common microfabrication techniques (lithography, deposition, and etching), we present an array of micromachining and MEMS technologies that can be used to fabricate microstructures down to ∼ 1 µm. These techniques have attained an adequate level of maturity to allow for a variety of MEMS-based commercial products (pressure sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes, etc.). More recently, nanometer-sized structures have attracted an enormous amount of interest. This is mainly due to their unique electrical, magnetic, optical, thermal, and mechanical properties. These could lead to a variety of electronic, photonic, and sensing devices with a superior performance compared to their macro counterparts. Subsequent to our discussion on MEMS and micromachining, we present several important nanofabrication

2. Scanning Probe Microscopy-STM
The principle of electron tunneling was proposed by Giaever. He envisioned that if a potential difference is applied to two metals separated by a thin insulating film, a current will flow because of the ability of electrons to penetrate a potential barrier.
R. Young developed field emission topograph profiler.
Binnig and Rohler introduced vacuum tunneling combined with lateral scanning. The vacuum provides the ideal barrier for tunneling. The lateral scanning allows one to image surfaces with exquisite resolution, lateral-less than 1 nm and vertical-less than 0.1 nm, sufficient to define the position of single atoms.

3. Calibration standards
Crystals as ‚rulers‘
h = d111 = 0,31 nm
STM Image of HOPG (Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite) Image size: 10nm x10nm
AFM image of silicon (111) single atomic
steps with native oxide

4. Since the introduction of the STM in 1981 and AFM in 1985 by Binnig and Rohler , many variations of probe based microscopies, referred to as SPMs, have been developed.
Starting with some of the most common microfabrication techniques (lithography, deposition, and etching), we present an array of micromachining and MEMS technologies that can be used to fabricate microstructures down to ∼ 1 µm. These techniques have attained an adequate level of maturity to allow for a variety of MEMS-based commercial products (pressure sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes, etc.). More recently, nanometer-sized structures have attracted an enormous amount of interest. This is mainly due to their unique electrical, magnetic, optical, thermal, and mechanical properties. These could lead to a variety of electronic, photonic, and sensing devices with a superior performance compared to their macro counterparts. Subsequent to our discussion on MEMS and micromachining, we present several important nanofabrication

5. Scanning Probe Microscopy
Family of SPM
STM scanning tunneling microscope
AFM Atomic force microscope
FFM (or LFM) (Lateral or Friction) force microscope
SEFM Scanning electrostatic force microscope
SFAM scanning force acoustic microscope
AFAM atomic force acoustic microscope
SMM scanning magnetic microscope
MFM magnetic force microscope
SNOM scanning near field optical microscope
SThM scanning thermal microscope
SEcM scanning electrochemical microscope
SKpM scanning Kelvin Probe microscope
SCPM scanning chemical potential microscope
SICM scanning ion conductance microscope
SCM scanning capacitance microscope
近场光学扫描显微镜 电磁 力 扫描 显微镜

6. Non-contact scanning probe microscope (SPM)
Scanning tunneling microscope
Atomic force microscope
Scanning near field optical microscope
Scanning magnetic force microscope

7. Optical microscope and Transmission electron microscope
Operating voltage 50~100kV;
Wave length:
0.004~0.006 nm;
Resolution: <1nm

8. Laser autofocus system

9. Field-ion microscope Radius of the tip: 10nm Magnification: 106;
Operating voltage ~100kV;
Resolution: <1nm

10. Field emission profiler -- R.Young
Operating voltage ~100V;
Resolution: vertical~3nm;
Lateral~400nm

11. Principle of operation of the STM made by Binnig and Rohrer
JT ∝ VT exp(−Aφ1/2d)
JT ― the tunnel current, a sensitive function of the gap width d ;
VT ― the bias voltage;
φ― the average barrier height (work function) ;
A ― constant = eV−1/2 Å−1.
With a work function of a few eV, JT changes by an order of magnitude for every angstrom change of d.

12. A sharp metal tip to the surface: 0.3–1 nm;
The tip is scanned over a surface while the tunneling current changes with it, so the surface is measured.
A sharp metal tip to the surface: 0.3–1 nm;
At a convenient operating voltage (10mV–1V);
The tunneling current varies from 0.2 to 10 nA (which is measurable).

13. Nanoscope STM consists of three main parts:
the head which houses the piezoelectric tube
scanner for three dimensional motion of the tip and
the preamplifier circuit (FET input amplifier) mounted on top of the head for the tunneling current,
the base on which the sample is mounted, and the base support, which supports the base and head

15. Scanning Probe Microscopy-STM
Principle of operation of a commercial STM, a sharp tip attached to a piezoelectric tube scanner is scanned on a sample
The motion of the tip due to external vibrations is proportional to the square of the ratio of vibration frequency to the resonant frequency of the tube. Therefore, to minimize the tip vibrations, the resonant frequencies of the tube are high at about 60 kHz in the vertical direction and about 40 kHz in the horizontal direction.

16. Scanning Probe Microscopy-STM
STM cantilevers with sharp tips are typically fabricated from metal wires of tungsten (W), platinum iridium (Pt-Ir), or gold (Au) and sharpened by
grinding, cutting with a wire cutter or razor blade,
field emission/ evaporator,
ion milling, fracture, or
electrochemical polishing/etching.
The two most commonly used tips are made from either a Pt-Ir (80/20) alloy or tungsten wire.

17. Schematic of a typical tungsten cantilever with a sharp tip produced by electrochemical etching.
The resonant frequencies of the tube are high at
about 60 kHz in the vertical direction and about 40 kHz
in the horizontal direction.
A lateral resolution of about 2 nm requires tip radii on the order of 10 nm.

18. Scanning Probe Microscopy-STM
Schematics of (a) CG(controlled geometry) Pt-Ir probe, and (b) CG Pt-Ir FIB (focused ion beam) milled probe.

19. Constant-current mode:
a feedback network changes the height of the
tip z to keep the current constant. → topographic map yielded by the displacement of the tip.
Constant height mode: a metal tip scannes across a surface at nearly constant height and constant voltage while the current is monitored → topographic map yielded by the change of the current.
STM can be operated in either the constant-current or the constant height mode. The images are of graphite in air.

20. Scanning Probe Microscopy-STM
STM images of evaporated C60 film on a gold-coated freshly-cleaved mica using a mechanically sheared Pt-Ir (80-20) tip in constant height mode.

21. Atomic Force Microscope
Contact
Non-contact mode/Tapping
From the point of metrology is is a very flexable tools which should be use for the determination of dimension of small structures.
In this talk I will give an overview over the techniques, the different types, some aspect of physical interaction, error which have to be avoided, metrology SPM, calibration standards, and uncertainty.
Tip radius ~ nm
Force ~ 0.01 nN nN
sample: nearly any sample

22. Atomic force microscope
Principle of operation of the AFM. Sample mounted on a piezoelectric tube scanner is scanned against a short tip and the cantilever deflection is measured, mostly, using a laser deflection technique. Force (contact mode) or force gradient (noncontact mode) is measured during scanning.

23. The AFM combines the principles of the STM and the stylus profiler .
Atomic force microscope
The AFM combines the principles of the STM and the stylus profiler .
During initial contact, the atoms at the end of the tip experience a very weak repulsive force due to electronic orbital overlap with the atoms in the sample surface. The force acting on the tip causes a cantilever deflection which is measured by tunneling, capacitive, or optical detectors.
In an AFM, the force between the sample and tip is detected, rather than the tunneling current.
The deflection can be measured to within 0.02 nm, so for typical cantilever spring constant of 10N/m a force as low as 0.2 nN can be detected.
The AFM can be used either in a static or dynamic mode.
The deflection can be measured to within 0.02 nm, so for typical cantilever spring constant of 10N/m a force as low as 0.2 nN (corresponding normal pressure ～ 200 MPa for a Si3N4 tip with radius of about 50 nm against single crystal silicon) can be detected. (To put these numbers in perspective, individual atoms and human hair are typically a fraction of a nanometer and about 75μm in diameter, respectively, and a drop of water and an eyelash have a mass of about 10μN and 100 nN, respectively.)

24. Schematics of the four more commonly used detection
systems for measurement of cantilever deflection.
In each set up, the sample mounted on piezoelectric body
is shown on the right, the cantilever in the middle, and the
corresponding deflection sensor on the left

25. An illustration of the optical beam deflection system
that detects cantilever motion in the AFM. The voltage
signal VA−VB is proportional to the deflection

26. long-range (up to 100 nm) ：
Van der Waals ，Electrostatic ，Magnetic forces
short-range (fractions of a nm) :
Chemical forces (bonding energy， equilibrium distance)

27. AFM cantilever

28. The cantilever is characterized by 3 important coefficients :
Spring constant k ;
Eigenfrequency f0 ;
Quality factor Q - is typically a few hundred but can reach hundreds of thousands in vacuum.

29. A variety of silicon and silicon nitride cantilevers are commercially available with
－micron-scale dimensions,
－spring constants ranging from 0.01 to 100N/m, and
－resonant frequencies ranging from 5 kHz to over 300 kHz.

30. Spring constant of cantilever
To obtain atomic resolution with the AFM, the spring constant of the cantilever should be weaker than the equivalent spring between atoms.
The vibration frequencies ω of atoms bound in a molecule or in a crystalline solid are typically 1013 Hz or higher;
The mass of the atoms m on the order of 10−25;
Interatomic spring constants k, given by ω2m, on the order of 10N/m.
Therefore, a cantilever beam with a spring constant of about 1N/m or lower is desirable.

31. AFM，a powerful surface tool on atomic/molecular scales
1N/m， 1ng nN nm kHz
0.01–5N/m
Interatomic forces with one or several atoms in contact are 20–40 or 50–100 pN, respectively.
Thus, atomic resolution with an AFM is only possible with a sharp tip on a flexible cantilever at a net repulsive force of 100 pN or lower.

32. Contact (static) Mode
In the contact (static) mode, the interaction force between tip and sample is measured by measuring the cantilever deflection.
Tip approach sample: A-B-C
A-B ― <10-10N (attractive force);
B-C ― >10-10N (repulsive force);
Tip leaves sample: C-B-D-A
C-B ― > 10-10N (repulsive force);
B-D ― <10-10N (attractive force);
D-A ― <10-10N (repulsive force);

33. NonContact (dynamic) Mode
q´(t) ― the deflection of the tip of the cantilever, It oscillates with an
amplitude A at a distance q(t) to a sample.
kts varies in orders of magnitude during one oscillation cycle,

34. NonContact (static) Mode

35. Tapping mode
Schematic of tapping mode used for surface roughness measurements

36. Tapping mode，a powerful surface tool on atomic/molecular scales, because of :
(1) it has true atomic resolution,
(2) it can measure atomic force (so-called atomic force spectroscopy),
(3) it can observe even insulators, and
(4) it can measure mechanical responses such as elastic deformation.

37. Scanning Probe Microscopy-AFM
A commercial small sample AFM/FFM,

38. A large sample AFM/FFM

39. Schematics of a commercial AFM/FFM made by Digital Instruments Inc.
(a) front view,
(b) optical head,
(c) base, and
(d) cantilever substrate mounted on cantilever mount (not to scale)

40. (b) optical head

41. (c) base

42. (d) cantilever substrate mounted on cantilever mount (not to scale)

43. Block schematic of the feedback control loop of an AFM

44. The NPL Metrological Atomic Force Microscope (MAFM)

45. The NPL Metrological Atomic Force Microscope (MAFM)

46. AFM
(a) A schematic depiction of an atomic force microscope cantilever and tip interacting with materials on a surface. Tips typically have points of 50 nm or less in diameter.
(b) Schematic of multiplexed AFM tips performing multiple operations in parallel.
Fig. 10.6

47. Probes in Scanning Microscopies
― SPM images are generated through measurements of a tip-sample interaction.
― A well-characterized tip is the key element to data interpretation and is typically the limiting factor.
Starting with some of the most common microfabrication techniques (lithography, deposition, and etching), we present an array of micromachining and MEMS technologies that can be used to fabricate microstructures down to ∼ 1 µm. These techniques have attained an adequate level of maturity to allow for a variety of MEMS-based commercial products (pressure sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes, etc.). More recently, nanometer-sized structures have attracted an enormous amount of interest. This is mainly due to their unique electrical, magnetic, optical, thermal, and mechanical properties. These could lead to a variety of electronic, photonic, and sensing devices with a superior performance compared to their macro counterparts. Subsequent to our discussion on MEMS and micromachining, we present several important nanofabrication

48. Probes in Scanning Microscopies
Starting with some of the most common microfabrication techniques (lithography, deposition, and etching), we present an array of micromachining and MEMS technologies that can be used to fabricate microstructures down to ∼ 1 µm. These techniques have attained an adequate level of maturity to allow for a variety of MEMS-based commercial products (pressure sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes, etc.). More recently, nanometer-sized structures have attracted an enormous amount of interest. This is mainly due to their unique electrical, magnetic, optical, thermal, and mechanical properties. These could lead to a variety of electronic, photonic, and sensing devices with a superior performance compared to their macro counterparts. Subsequent to our discussion on MEMS and micromachining, we present several important nanofabrication

50. Scanning Probe Microscope - cantilevers and tips

52. Oxide sharpening of silicon tips
Oxide sharpening of silicon tips. (Si-SiO2 stress formation reduces the oxidation rate at regions of high curvature. )
The left image shows a sharpened core of silicon in an outer layer of SiO2. The right image is a higher magnification view of such a tip after the SiO2 is removed.

53. Electron beam deposition (EBD).

54. Carbon Nanotube Tips
SEM micrograph of a multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT) tip physically attached on the single-crystal silicon, square-pyramidal tip

55. Carbon Nanotube Tips
A MWCNT attached to a tungsten spike

56. Assembled Cantilever Probe (ACP)
ACP Structure comprising two cantilevers glued together

57. A mechanically cut STM tip (left) and an electrochemically etched STM tip (right）.

58. Probe Tip Performance
A tip model to explain the high resolution obtained on ordered samples in contact mode in AFM.

59. Electron beam deposition (EBD) Tips
Measurement of a step height standard using a normal silicon tip (left) and a silicon tip with an EBD deposited tip on the end

60. The tunneling current is a monotonic function of the tip-sample distance and has a very sharp distance dependence.
In contrast, in AFM, the tip-sample force has long and short-range components and is not monotonic.
一Jump-to-Contact and Other Instabilities;
一Contribution of Long-Range Forces;
一Noise in the Imaging Signal (1/f );
一Non-monotonic Imaging Signal (FM modulation)

61. 一Jump-to-Contact and Other Instabilities
Plot of tunneling current It and force Fts (typical values) as a function of distance z between front atom and surface atom layer

62. Schematic view of 1/ f noise apparent in force detectors.
Static AFMs - from 0.01 Hz to a few hundred Hz.
Dynamic AFMs - around 10 kHz to a few hundred kHz.

64. Noncontact mode AFM images of Si(111) 7×7 reconstructed surface obtained using the Si tips
(a) Without and (b) with dangling bond. The scan area is 99Å×99 Å.

65. Low Temperature Scanning Probe Microscopy
Probably the most important advantage of
the low-temperature operation of scanning probe
techniques is that they lead to a significantly
better signal-to-noise ratio than measuring at
room temperature.
Starting with some of the most common microfabrication techniques (lithography, deposition, and etching), we present an array of micromachining and MEMS technologies that can be used to fabricate microstructures down to ∼ 1 µm. These techniques have attained an adequate level of maturity to allow for a variety of MEMS-based commercial products (pressure sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes, etc.). More recently, nanometer-sized structures have attracted an enormous amount of interest. This is mainly due to their unique electrical, magnetic, optical, thermal, and mechanical properties. These could lead to a variety of electronic, photonic, and sensing devices with a superior performance compared to their macro counterparts. Subsequent to our discussion on MEMS and micromachining, we present several important nanofabrication

66. One chamber UHV system with variable temperature STM based on a flow cryostat design.

67. Three-chamber UHV and bath cryostat system for scanning force microscopy, front view.
One for cantilever and sample preparation,
which also serves as a transfer chamber,
One for analysis purposes, and
A main chamber that houses the microscope.

68. The first demonstration of manipulating atoms was performed by Eigler and Schweizer (1990), who used Xe atoms on a Ni(110) surface to write the three letters “IBM” (their employer) on the atomic scale

69. Final artwork greeting the new millennium on the atomic scale

70. benzene
Synthesis of biphenyl联苯 from two iodobenzene碘代苯 molecules on Cu(111): First, iodine is abstracted from both molecules (i),(j), then the iodine between the two phenyl groups is removed from the step (k), and finally one of the phenyls is slid along the Cu-step (l) until it reacts with the other phenyl (m); the line drawings symbolize the actual status of the molecules

71. AFM
Fig. 10.6
(c) AFM image of a quantum corral, a structure built using AFM manipulation of individual atoms (from the IBM Image Gallery)

72. AFM
(a) A schematic depiction of an atomic force microscope cantilever and tip interacting with materials on a surface. Tips typically have points of 50 nm or less in diameter.
(b) Schematic of multiplexed AFM tips performing multiple operations in parallel.
(c) AFM image of a quantum corral, a structure built using AFM manipulation of individual atoms (from the IBM Image Gallery)
Fig. 10.6