1. Substance Substance & Form Diachronic and Synchronic approaches Substance & Form Diachrony& Synchrony
Lecture # 12

2. Substance & Form
Substance and symbols such as letters of the alphabet that represent sounds in writing are the raw material of a language
They are the phonic (sounds) and graphic (written) substance of the language.
They have no meaning in themselves.

3. Substance & Form
They become meaningful when they are given a particular shape or order.
They have meaning when they have some form.
All distinct sounds produced by human speech organs and written scripts are the substance of human language

4. Substance & Form
Cluster of sounds such as /n/, /t/, /e/ is only noise – has no meaning
It must be suitably arranged into some form to make it meaningful
When the same sounds arranged into some order i.e /n/ + /e/ + /t/ - We can see some meaning

5. Substance & Form
Log of wood has no particular shape, A carpenter makes chairs, tables etc. out of it
Substance and form – two parts of the quality of language
Substance, which is the mere sound or word is only the signifier (in Saussure’s terms)
In order to make sense, it has to be linked with the ‘signified’ – the meaning or the concept

6. Substance & Form
Sounds when arranged in a particular order, signify something meaningful;
words when arranged in a particular order express some meaningful idea or action;
this means that the arrangement itself gives form to the substance of the language

7. Substance & Form
A further distinction is made between levels of ‘expression’ and ‘content’ in form.
At one level, the level of expression, linguistics deals with the form or shape of linguistic elements, without considering their meaning.
This way we might get sentences like ‘the bachelor gave birth to a baby’ – doesn’t make any sense

8. Substance & Form
Hence, we have to consider level of content as well i.e. the level of meaning, or semantics
Form includes both grammar (arrangement of words in a sentence) & Semantics (the meaning relationships between the words)
Summing up, we can say that substance is the elements or ‘raw materials’ of language – phonemes, morphemes, or graphemes

9. Substance & Form
Form is the associative order in which these are brought together in a meaningful way.
Linguists say that form is the concern of linguistic study, not substance; It is form that makes it possible to study substance.

10. Diachronic & Synchronic Approaches
The distinction is between two approaches to the study of language.
The synchronic (‘chronos’ stands for time) approach sees language as a living whole, existing as a state at one particular time.
The state is an accumulation of all linguistic activities that a language community engages in during a specific period of time

11. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
Linguists can collect samples of this language regardless of any historical considerations that might have influenced language at any particular time.
Once focal point isolated, time factor is irrelevant
Whatever changes occur during study, are considered irrelevant to the main focus.

12. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
What is the main focus of study?
It is the system of language as it exists; the system of inter-relationships that bind together co-existing items in the collective mind of the community
The diachronic approach traces historical developments.

13. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
It records the changes that have taken place between successive points in time.
Diachronic is equivalent to ‘historial’ (Lyons, 1983, p. 35)
It investigates language changes as they occur from time to time, the evolution of languages
Diachronic refers to historical developments

14. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
Saussure (1916) who made this distinction gives priority to synchronic approach.
He says that the two approaches must be kept separate
Saussure says that what strikes us first is that their succession in time does not exist as far as a speaker is concerned.

15. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
For example: A speaker of English is not concerned with the language of middle ages.
The speaker is concerned with the state of being, the language that exists for him at a given time.
The speaker does not consider what language existed before or after him

16. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
Saussure has given inter-relationship of diachrony and synchrony C
A x B D

17. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
In the above diagram, AB is the synchronic axis of simultaneities – all the facts of language as they co-exist at a particular time
It is the static axis – doesn’t change. It refers to language as it exists at a particular time
CD is the diachronic axis of succession – an imaginary line moving through time

18. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
AB can intersect CD at any point because at
any given time, there will be a number of
simultaneous facts about language co-existing
X is the point on CD where a particular point in time can be isolated and language at this particular point can be described (as it exists)

19. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
Priority of synchronic over diachronic study is explained by Saussure by analogy of the game of chess.
The chess board constantly changes because of the different moves of the players but anybody walks in at any point, he can understand the state of the game – by the position of the pieces.

20. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
It doesn’t matter how many moves the players have made before arriving at that stage.
The game can be described without giving reference to the earlier moves.
Rules, agreed upon continue to operate with each move
Similar rules present in language too

21. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
Only one piece needs to be moved at a time for each move.
In language, change affects only isolated elements, not the whole language
No doubt, these changes ultimately do change the language – case of some words disappearing from a language and some new words entering

22. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
Just as succession of moves changes the final results of the game.
However, at each point in the game all the pieces exist relative to each other and their ultimate fate can not be predicted at that point of the game.
Likewise all the sounds in words exist relative to each other.

23. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
Likewise different words in sentences exist relative to each other and so on.
In the process of language formation, we can not say what their exact place would be finally.
So, language can and should be described synchronically – on its own terms without referring to its past or future shape

24. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
The question arises: should historical study not be done? Or should diachronic perspective not be considered?
Saussure says that although diachronic aspect is not related to the language system, it does affect or condition the system.
He just wants to keep them separate.

25. Diachronic & Synchronic approaches
He says that language is a complex system of values.
We may confuse synchronic approach while thinking about the historical perspective
In order to give historical studies a valid base, good clear synchronic study is important

26. Summary
Substance and symbols (letters of the alphabet) are raw material of language
They become meaningful when given a particular shape or order.
A one level we consider only the form or shape
At another we consider the level of meaning

27. Summary A combination of both gives us a meaningful form.
Diachronic & Synchronic Approaches
Diachronic approach related with development of language over different ages
Synchronic approach related with the shape of language at a specific time without considering its shape in the past or future