1. 1

2. 2 What was Charles Darwin’s idea about evolution called? A) Competition B) Natural Selection C) Survival D) Complete Evolution

3. 3 What are the two steps of speciation? A) Geographic Isolation and Reproductive Isolation B) Adaptive radiation and geographic isolation C) Reproductive isolation and adaptive radiation D) None of the above

4. 4 What was Jay Gould’s theory? A) Punctuated equilibrium B) Popularized evolution C) Gradualism D) Neodarwinism

5. 5 Which of these is a Prokaryote? A) bacteria B) fungi C) protista D) plants

6. 6 What is taxonomy? A) the epithet for the species B) the genus name of the species C) method to name and classify species D) a two-part Latin name

7. 7 What is adaptive radiation? A) Differences in isolated groups become so great, they can no longer interbreed B) When a population becomes divided by a natural barrier C) survival of the fittest D) When one species splits into many species to fill open habitats

8. 8 Layering occurs in which type of rock? A) igneous B) sedimentary C) metamorphic

9. 9 Evolution is: A) rapid change B) complete change C) gradual change D) extreme change

10. 10 Which is not a cause of evolutionary change? A) genetic drift B) speciation C) mutation D) founder effect

11. 11 Genetic drift involves: A) isolation  accumulate mutations B) Mutations  accumulate isolation C) founder effect D) isolation

12. 12 When a new species evolves during the recovery period following mass extinction A) Mass extinction B) Background extinction C) Adaptive radiation D) Emergent Species

13. 13 Which island would have the most species diversity? A) bigger islands B) small islands C) islands close to mainland D) islands farther from mainland

14. 14 The Galapagos Islands are located – Near Europe – Near Australia – Below North America – Below South America A. In the Atlantic Ocean

15. 15 What was interesting about the finches beaks? A. They all got fatter due to the tropical climate B. They got narrower since the seeds were harder here C. They were the same as on the mainland D. They all adapted individually to different situations. E. They fell off within 5 months of adult life.

16. 16 The current species on the island A. Separated into different species over time as their beaks and characteristics adapted B. Killed each other, leaving only the species seen now- a result of survival of the fittest and competition. C. All were replaced by new finches/birds the settlers brought over D. Were partially replaced by finches/birds the settlers brought over

17. 17 According to Darwin, what made up natural selection? A. Competition B. Variance C. Competition and Variance D. Competition and Instinct

18. 18 Being “fit” means ? A. Being the strongest in the species B. Being the strongest in the population C. Being the fastest and strongest in the species D. Being the fastest and strongest in the population E. Surviving to reproduce

19. 19 Fossils are formed when: A. Sedimentary rock compress against each other with the bones of dead organisms in them B. Dead animals bones are weathered by natural wind processes C. The sun burns away flesh and imprints dead animal bones into rock and sand\

20. 20 Limbs that share similar bone structure but have different function are called A. Homogenous B. Synonymous C. Homology D. Forelimbs E. Homologous

21. 21 What is not a type of competition? A) Resource competition B) Preemptive competition C) Mating competition D) Interference competition

22. 22 Why do insecticides not work completely? A.Companies purposely make the products weaker so customers have to buy more B.Government regulates their power to protect the environment under the FIFRA C.They target only adults in the insect population so those hatched do not get killed D.The stronger survive and reproduce genetically resistant offspring E.Insecticide has a very short half-life, so it wears off before the job is done a lot of times.

23. 23 How do we get Biodiversity?

24. 24 Evolution, Biodiversity, and Community Processes

25. 25 Biodiversity

26. 26

27. 27 Biodiversity Biodiversity –increases with speciation –decreases with extinction Give-and-take between speciation and extinction  changes in biodiversity Extinction creates evolutionary opportunities for adaptive radiation of surviving species

28. Interpretations of Speciation Two theories: 1.Gradualist Model (Neo- Darwinian): Slow changes in species overtime 2.Punctuated Equilibrium: Evolution occurs in spurts of relatively rapid change

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30. Adaptive Radiation Emergence of numerous species from a common ancestor introduced to new and diverse environments ExampleExample: Example Hawaiian Honeycreepers

31. Convergent Evolution Species from different evolutionary branches may come to resemble one another if they live in very similar environments Example: 1. Ostrich (Africa) and Emu (Australia). 2. Sidewinder (Mojave Desert) and Horned Viper (Middle East Desert)

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33. Coevolution Evolutionary change –One species acts as a selective force on a second species –Inducing adaptations –that act as selective force on the first species Example: 1.Wolf and Moose 2.Acacia ants and Acacia trees 2.Yucca Plants and Yucca moths 3.Lichen

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35. 35 Extinction Extinction of a species occurs when it ceases to exist; may follow environmental change - if the species does not evolve Evolution and extinction are affected by: –large scale movements of continents –gradual climate changes due to continental drift or orbit changes –rapid climate changes due to catastrophic events

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37. 37 Extinction Background extinction - species disappear at a low rate as local conditions changeBackground extinction - species disappear at a low rate as local conditions change Mass extinction - catastrophic, wide- spread events  abrupt increase in extinction rateMass extinction - catastrophic, wide- spread events  abrupt increase in extinction rate –Five mass extinctions in past 500 million years Adaptive radiation - new species evolve during recovery period following mass extinctionAdaptive radiation - new species evolve during recovery period following mass extinction

38. 38 Mass Extinctions Date of the Extinction Event Percent Species Lost Species Affected 65 mya (million years ago) 85Dinosaurs, plants (except ferns and seed bearing plants), marine vertebrates and invertebrates. Most mammals, birds, turtles, crocodiles, lizards, snakes, and amphibians were unaffected. 213 mya44Marine vertebrates and invertebrates 248 mya75-95Marine vertebrates and invertebrates 380 mya70Marine invertebrates 450 mya50Marine invertebrates http://www.geog.ouc.bc.ca/physgeog/contents/9h.html

39. 39 1.Diversity is a balance of factors that increase diversity and factors that decrease diversity 2.Production of new species (speciation), and influx can increase diversity 3.Competitive exclusion, efficient predators, catastrophic events (extinction) can decrease diversity 4.Physical conditions a.variety of resources b.Predators c.environmental variability Equilibrium Theory of Biodiversity

40. 40 Species Diversity Def: the variety of species in an area Two subcomponents: species richness species evenness

41. 41 Species Richness vs. Evenness Species Richness: measurement of the number of species in a given area Species Evenness: measurement of how evenly distributed organisms are among species Community A Community B species 1 25 1 species 2 0 1 species 325 1 species 425 1 species 5 25 96

42. 42 Determining Species Diversity Scientists may want to: * get an estimate of # of species in an area * compare species diversity of two communities To be accurate, need to: * take both species evenness and species richness into account

43. 43 Species Diversity Indices Shannon-Weiner (Shannon-Weaver) Index Diversity = (p spp 1 - ln(p spp 1 )) + (p spp 2 - ln(p spp. 2 ) + … (p spp N - ln(p spp. N ) Simpson Index Diversity = 1 (pspp 1 ) 2 + (pspp 2 ) 2 + … (pspp N ) 2

44. 44 Why should we care about measuring biodiversity (species diversity)?

45. 45 Biodiversity Factoids ~ 2,000,000 spp. have been described ~ 10-30,000,000 species actually exist (est.) ~ 8,000,000 – 22,000,000 spp. unidentified ~ 40 – 60% of all spp. occur in two areas: * tropical rainforests * coral reefs

46. 46 Richness (number of species) Relative abundance How do we describe these differences? Comparison of Two Communities

47. 47 Biogeographical Changes Richness declines from equator to pole Due to: –Evolutionary history –Climate Fig 53.23 Bird species numbers

48. 48 Species-area curve The larger the geographic area, the greater the number of species Geographic (Sample) Size Fig. 23.25 North American Birds

49. 49 Species Richness on Islands Depends on:Depends on: –Rate of immigration to island –Rate of extinction on island These in turn depend on:These in turn depend on: –Island size –Distance from mainland

50. 50 How do species move? Humans (accidental and intended) Animals (sticky seeds and scat) Wind and ocean currents (+ or -) Land bridges Stepping stone islands –affected by climactic changes (glaciation) –ocean levels –short-term weather patterns

51. 51 What allowed colonization? Niche opening No competition Endemics not utilizing resources Accessibility to colonists

52. 52 Theory of Island Biogeography 1.Immigration rate decreases as island diversity increases 2.Extinction increases as island diversity increases 3.Species equilibrium on islands is a balance of immigration and local extinction

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54. 54 1.Smaller islands have lower total populations 2.Probability of extinction increases with lower population 3.Smaller islands have lower species diversity Theory of Island Biogeography

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56. 56 1.Islands further from mainland have lower immigration rates 2.More distant islands have lower species diversity Theory of Island Biogeography

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58. 58 Wilderness Act of 1964 directed the Secretary of the Interior, within 10 years, to review every roadless area of 5,000 or more acres and every roadless island (regardless of size) within National Wildlife Refuge and National Park Systems and to recommend to the President the suitability of each such area or island for inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation System, with final decisions made by Congress. The Secretary of Agriculture was directed to study and recommend suitable areas in the National Forest System.

59. 59 Roosevelt T. Roosevelt also tripled the size of the forest reserves and transferred administration from Department of the Interior (USDOI) to Department of Agriculture (USDA. 1905, Congress created the US Forest Service to manage and protect forest reserves. Roosevelt appointed Gifford Pinchot as its first chief. 1907, Roosevelt reserved 16 million acres of land. Congress was trying to ban Executive orders for forest reservation. Roosevelt did this defiantly the day before Congress’ ban became law!

60. 60 Pinchot (1905) Pinchot pioneered scientific management of forest resources on public lands, using the principles of sustainable yield and multiple use. This same year, the Audubon Society was founded to preserve the nation’s bird species.

61. 61 US National Park Service 1912, Congress created the US National Park Service. 1916, Congress passed the National park System Organic Act – declared that the parks were to be maintained in a manner that leaves them unimpaired for future generations and established the National Park Service (DOI). Stephen Mather was the first Director of NPS. He began establishing grand hotels and other tourist facilities in parks with spectacular scenery to encourage tourism by allowing private concessionaires to operate facilities within the parks.

62. 62 Community Relationships

63. 63 Niche is the species’ occupation & Habitat is location of species (its address)

64. 64Niche A species’ functional role in its ecosystem; includes anything affecting species survival and reproduction 1.Range of tolerance for various physical and chemical conditions 2.Types of resources used 3.Interactions with living and nonliving components of ecosystems 4.Role played in flow of energy and matter cycling

65. 65Niche Realized niche: more restricted set of conditions under which the species actually exists due to interactions with other species Fundamental niche: set of conditions under which a species might exist in the absence of interactions with other species

66. 66 Types of Species Generalist –large niches –tolerate wide range of environmental variations –do better during changing environmental conditions Specialist –narrow niches – more likely to become endangered – do better under consistent environmental conditions

67. 67 Depending upon the characteristics of the organism, organisms will follow a biotic potential or carrying capacity type reproductive strategy The r-strategists 1.High biotic potential – reproduce very fast 2.Are adapted to live in a variable climate 3.Produce many small, quickly maturing offspring = early reproductive maturity 4.“Opportunistic” organisms The K-strategists 1.Adaptations allow them to maintain population values around the carrying capacity 2.They live long lives 3.Reproduce late 4.Produce few, large, offspring r and k strategists

68. 68 Types of Species Native species normally live and thrive in a particular ecosystem Nonnative species are introduced - can be called exotic or alien Indicator species serve as early warnings of danger to ecosystem- birds & amphibians Keystone species are considered of most importance in maintaining their ecosystem

69. 69 Nonnative Species Nonnative plant species are invading the nation's parks at an alarming rate, displacing native vegetation and threatening the wildlife that depend on them At some, such as Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore in Michigan, as much as 23 percent of the ground is covered with alien species, and the rate of expansion is increasing dramatically.

70. Nonnative Species –Also called invasive, alien, and exotic species –Not necessarily threatening- most food crops, animals, and flowers are non-native –Ex: Killer bees- 1957 Brazil imported African honeybees to  honey production BUT they displaced the honeybees and  honey supply –Have moved north and killed 1000s of animals and  1000 people 70

71. 71 Indicator Species a species whose status provides information on the overall condition of the ecosystem and of other species in that ecosystem reflects the quality and changes in environmental conditions as well as aspects of community composition

72. Case Study: Why are Amphibians Vanishing? Live part in water, part on land Historically, great at adapting to environmental changes BUT rapid env. changes in past few decades to land, water and air Since 1980, 100’s of the 6000 species have been vanishing everywhere (even in protected areas) Many reasons: habitat loss, drought,  UV, pollution, overhunting…

73. Case Study: Why are Amphibians Vanishing? Why should we care? 1.Suggests that environmental health is deteriorating 2.Natural service- eats more pests than birds 3.Genetic storehouse of pharmaceutical products

74. 74 Keystone Species A keystone is the stone at the top of an arch that supports the other stones and keeps the whole arch from falling – a species on which the persistence of a large number of other species in the ecosystem depends. If a keystone species is removed from a system –the species it supported will also disappear –other dependent species will also disappear Examples –top carnivores that keep prey populations in check –large herbivores that shape the habitat in which other species live –important plants that support particular insect species that are prey for birds –Pollinators (bees, bats, butterflies) –bats that disperse the seeds of plants

75. Case Study: American Alligator A keystone species that almost went extinct! No natural predators Outlived the dinosaurs 1930’s- humans began hunting; by 1960’s 90% wiped out! Alligators: –dig deep holes used as nests of other species –maintain many fish pop. In 1967, endangered Strong come back- now threatened

76. Species have 5 Roles 5.Foundation- shapes their communities by positively changing the habitat –Elephants- push, break and uproot trees –Beavers- build dams to create ponds and wetlands for other animals

77. Case Study: Why Should We Protect Sharks? In reality, many sharks are plant-eating gentle giants Average of 6 deaths/ year For every shark that injures or kills a person each year, people kill about 1.2 million sharks Amounts to 79-97 million/year! Caught for their valuable fins then thrown back alive to bleed to death or drown because they cannot swim without their fins Scalloped hammerhead shark

78. Case Study: Why Should We Protect Sharks? Keystone species- we NEED them! –Eat dead and dying fish in the ocean –Without them, ocean system may collapse –Strong immune systems Wounds do not get infected Almost never get cancer Could help humans if we understood their immune system

79. 79 Species Interaction

80. 80Competition Any interaction between two or more species for a resource that causes a decrease in the population growth or distribution of one of the species 1.Resource competition

81. 81Competition

82. 82 Resource Competition

83. 83Competition Any interaction between two or more species for a resource that causes a decrease in the population growth or distribution of one of the species 1.Resource competition 2.Preemptive competition

84. 84

85. 85Competition Any interaction between two or more species for a resource that causes a decrease in the population growth or distribution of one of the species 1.Resource competition 2.Preemptive competition 3.Competitive exclusion

86. 86 Competitive Exclusion

87. 87Competition Any interaction between two or more species for a resource that causes a decrease in the population growth or distribution of one of the species 1.Resource competition 2.Preemptive competition 3.Competition exploitation 4.Interference competition

88. 88Competition

89. 89 PREDATION

90. 90 Predator Adaptations Prey detection and recognition –sensory adaptations –distinguish prey from non-prey

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93. 93

94. 94 Predator Adaptations Prey detection and recognition –sensory adaptations –distinguish prey from non-prey Prey capture –passive vs. active –individuals vs. cooperative

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99. 99

100. 100 Predator Adaptations Prey detection and recognition –sensory adaptations –distinguish prey from non-prey Prey capture –passive vs. active –individuals vs. cooperative Eating prey –teeth, claws etc.

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104. 104

105. 105 Prey Adaptations Avoid detection –camouflage, mimics, –diurnal/nocturnal

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109. 109

110. 110 Prey Adaptations Avoid detection –camouflage, mimics, –diurnal/nocturnal Avoid capture –flee –resist –escape

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113. 113

114. 114 Prey Adaptations Avoid detection –camouflage, mimics, –diurnal/nocturnal Avoid capture –flee –resist –escape Disrupt handling (prevent being eaten) –struggle? –protection, toxins

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116. 116Herbivory Herbivore needs to find most nutritious –circumvent plant defenses

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118. 118Herbivory Herbivore needs to find most nutritious –circumvent plant defenses Herbivory strong selective pressure on plants –structural adaptations for defense –chemical adaptations for defense

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121. 121Herbivory

122. 122Herbivory

123. 123Herbivory

124. 124 Symbiosis: Mutualists, Commensalists and Parasites

125. 125 Symbiosis and symbiotic relationship are two commonly misused terms Translation of symbiosis from the Greek literally means “living together” Both positive and negative interactions

126. 126 Mutualism DEFINITION: An interaction between two individuals of different species that benefits both partners in this interaction

127. 127 Mutualism Increase birth rates Decrease death rates Increase equilibrium population densities, Raise the carrying capacity

128. 128 Pollination Animals visit flowers to collect nectar and incidentally carry pollen from one flower to another Animals get food and the plant get a pollination service

129. 129 Yucca’s only pollinator is the yucca moth. Hence entirely dependent on it for dispersal. Yucca moth caterpillar’s only food is yucca seeds. Yucca moth lives in yucca and receives shelter from plant. Yucca and Yucca Moth

130. 130 Lichen (Fungi-Algae) Symbiotic relationship of algae and fungae…results in very different growth formas with and without symbiont. What are the benefits to the fungus?

131. 131 Nitrogen Fixation Darkest areas are nuclei, the mid- tone areas are millions of bacteria Gram -, ciliate

132. 132 Commensalists Benefit from the host at almost no cost to the host Eyelash mite and humans Us and starlings or house sparrows Sharks and remora

133. 133 Parasites and Parasitoids Parasites: draw resources from host without killing the host (at least in the short term). Parasitoids: draw resources from the host and kill them swiftly (though not necessarily consuming them).

134. 134 Parasitic wasps Important parasites of larvae. In terms of biological control, how would this differ from predation? ovipositor

135. 135 Ecological Processes

136. 136 Ecological Succession Primary and Secondary Succession gradual & fairly predictable change in species composition with time some species colonize & become more abundant; other species decline or even disappear.

137. 137 Ecological Succession Gradual changing environment in favor of new / different species / communities

138. 138

139. 139 Primary Succession Glacier Retreat

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141. 141

142. 142 Disturbance Event that disrupts an ecosystem or community; Natural disturbance tree falls, fires, hurricanes, tornadoes, droughts, & floods Human–caused disturbance deforestation, erosion, overgrazing, plowing, pollution,mining Disturbance can initiate primary and/or secondary succession

143. 143 Ecological Stability Carrying Capacity – maximum number of individuals the environment can support

144. 144 Ecological Stability - Stress 1.Drop in Primary Productivity 2.Increased Nutrient Losses 3.Decline or extinction of indicator species 4.Increased populations of insect pests or disease organisms 5.Decline in Species diversity 6.Presence of Contaminants

145. 145 Which law directed the Secretary of the Interior to review every roadless area of 5,000 or more acres and every roadless island within National Wildlife Refuge and National Park Systems? A. Endangered Species Act B. Wilderness Act C. Lacey Act D. National Park Act E. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act

146. 146 What are keystone species? A. existing in such small numbers that it is in danger of becoming extinct B. introduced to an environment where it is not native, and that has since become a nuisance C. likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range D. serve as early warnings of damage to a community E. presence and role within an ecosystem has a disproportionate effect on other organisms within the system

147. 147 Who did Roosevelt appoint to head the newly created US Forest Service to protect and manage the world’s forests? A. E.O. Wilson B. Aldo Leopold C. Robert MacArthur D. Stephen Mather E. Gifford Pinchot

148. 148 Mutualism benefits: A) one of the organisms & hurts the other B) neither of the organisms C) both of the organisms D) benefits one & doesn’t hurt the other E) only one of the organisms

149. 149 Commensalism: A) benefits only one of the organisms B) benefits both organisms C) benefits one, doesn’t harm the other D) benefits neither of the organisms

150. 150 Biodiversity: A) decreases with speciation and extinction B) decreases with speciation and increases with extinction C) increases with speciation and extinction D) increases with speciation and decreases with extinction

151. 151 What is not a pre-zygotic barriers? A) behavioral isolation B) habitat isolation C) mechanical isolation D) hybrid isolation

152. 152 Which of the following does species richness not depend on? A) rate of immigration B) island size C) distance from mainland D) types of species

153. 153 Which is a species on which the persistence of a large number of other species in the ecosystem depends? A) r-strategists B) k-strategists C) nonnative D) keystone

154. 154 What is not characteristic of a k-strategists? A) long life B) bigger bodies C) produce a lot of offspring D) produce late in life

155. 155 What is not a predator adaptation? A) prey detection B) prey capture C) eating prey D) avoid detection E) mass numbers

156. 156 Bibliography 1.Miller 11 th Edition 2.http://abandoncorporel.ca/medias/evolution.jpghttp://abandoncorporel.ca/medias/evolution.jpg 3.http://www.ne.jp/asahi/clinic/yfc/fetus.htmlhttp://www.ne.jp/asahi/clinic/yfc/fetus.html 4.rob.ossifrage.net/images/rob.ossifrage.net/images/ 5.http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Five_Kingdoms_Three_Domains.htmhttp://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Five_Kingdoms_Three_Domains.htm 6.http://www.gpc.peachnet.edu/~ccarter/Millerlec5/Millerlec5.PPThttp://www.gpc.peachnet.edu/~ccarter/Millerlec5/Millerlec5.PPT 7.http://www.dnr.state.md.us/education/horseshoecrab/lifecycle.htmlhttp://www.dnr.state.md.us/education/horseshoecrab/lifecycle.html 8.http://www.falcons.co.uk/mefrg/Falco/13/Species.htmhttp://www.falcons.co.uk/mefrg/Falco/13/Species.htm 9.http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/NamSpecies.htmhttp://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/NamSpecies.htm 10.http://www.falcons.co.uk/mefrg/Falco/13/Species.htmhttp://www.falcons.co.uk/mefrg/Falco/13/Species.htm 11.http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/complex_life/complex_life.htmlhttp://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/complex_life/complex_life.html 12.http://nsm1.nsm.iup.edu/rwinstea/oparin.shtmhttp://nsm1.nsm.iup.edu/rwinstea/oparin.shtm 13.http://www.angelfire.com/on2/daviddarling/MillerUreyexp.htmhttp://www.angelfire.com/on2/daviddarling/MillerUreyexp.htm 14.http://exobiology.nasa.gov/ssx/biomod/origin_of_life_slideshow/origin_of_life_slideshow.htmlhttp://exobiology.nasa.gov/ssx/biomod/origin_of_life_slideshow/origin_of_life_slideshow.html 15.http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/classes/Geo104/HistoryofEarth.htmlhttp://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/classes/Geo104/HistoryofEarth.html 16.http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/objectives/o2_cellular_components.htmlhttp://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/objectives/o2_cellular_components.html 17.http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/fossils/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/fossils/ 18.http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/halfli.htmlhttp://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/halfli.html 19.http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEPC/WWC/1995/teach_rad.htmlhttp://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEPC/WWC/1995/teach_rad.html 20.http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/pi179.htmhttp://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/SNT/noframe/pi179.htm 21.http://www.npca.org/magazine/2001/march_april/nonnative_species.asphttp://www.npca.org/magazine/2001/march_april/nonnative_species.asp 22.http://www.bagheera.com/inthewild/spot_spkey.htmhttp://www.bagheera.com/inthewild/spot_spkey.htm 23.Biology, 2003, Prentice Hall 24.http://www.nearctica.com/ecology/habitats/island.htmhttp://www.nearctica.com/ecology/habitats/island.htm 25.http://www.valdosta.edu/~grissino/geog4900/lect_1.htmhttp://www.valdosta.edu/~grissino/geog4900/lect_1.htm