1. Response to Intervention in General, Remedial, and Special Education
Daniel J. Reschly
Kansas Association of School Psychologists
Hutcheson, KS
October 6, 2006
Reschly RTI

2. What To Do With Egbert?? 1st Grade, falling behind in reading
Slow progress compared to peers
Likely to miss benchmarks related to passing 3rd Grade reading test
Distractible, inattentive, disruptive
Sound Familiar
WHAT HAPPENS NEXT? Driven by Federal Legislation
Consider NCLB and IDEIA
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3. Egbert in the Traditional System
Refer Egbert
Preferral “intervention” (check a box)
Comprehensive Evaluation-Battery of Tests, “common battery”?
Assessment largely outside of the natural context
Dubious generalizations from test behavior to classroom
Eligibility assessment unrelated to intervention
Team decision-making
SLD diagnoses often inaccurate
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4. Can you blame somebody else?
PROBLEM SOLVING CHART
Yes
Does the damn thing
work? No
Don’t mess with it!
You Idiot!
Yes
Did you mess with it? No No
Hide it!
Does anyone
else know?
Yes
Will you catch hell? No
Yes
You poor slob!
Ignore it
Can you blame somebody else? No
Yes
NO PROBLEM
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5. What Is Response to Intervention (RTI)?
High quality instruction and behavior interventions
Matched to student need,
With frequent progress monitoring and formative evaluation,
Applied to individual educational decisions
Implementation requires: Allocating (aligning) resources to deliver effective interventions that produce improved child outcomes
Reschly RTI

6. Order at: www.nasdse.org RESPONSE TO Intervention
POLICY CONSIDERATIONS
AND IMPLEMENTATION
Order at:
Cost: $15 with discounts
for large orders
Reschly RTI

7. Why RTI? Dissatisfaction with ach. results
Expensive programs with undocumented benefits, General Ed. Title I and Sp Ed
Poor overall outcomes re: benchmark tests, graduate rates, early adult outcomes
Overrepresentation in sp ed
Disjointed programs across general, remedial and special ed.-compromised outcomes and wasted resources
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8. NAEP 4th Grade Reading by Race, Ethnicity in 2003
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Source: USDOE, NCES, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)

9. U.S. Ranks 14th in High School Graduation Rates (2001)
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Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators 2003 Edition, data available at

10. Reschly RTI

11. Special Education Placement Effects: High Incidence Disabilities
Treatment/Intervention aEffect Size
EMR/Special Classes (IQ 60-75)
Special Classes (IQ 75-90)
Resource for SLD and E/BD
Traditional Placement Practices Have Weak Relationships to Outcomes
Special Education as a Solution?
Note: Effect size is expressed in SD units, analogous to a z-score
Reschly RTI

12. Old Assumptions re: High Incidence Disabilities (SLD, MMR, E/BD)
Disabilities Inherent in Individual?-BUT, Context and prevention are crucial
Identify and Treat Underlying Causes-BUT, Failure of process training
Prescribe Methods that Capitalize on Strengths and Avoid Weaknesses-BUT, Failure of Aptitude by Treatment Interaction in Research and Practice
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13. Old Assumptions, cont.
Unique Treatment Methods and Teacher Training by Disability But, Same methods work for virtually all High Incidence I SWD, LD, ED, EMR
IQ Essential to Accurate Classification-BUT Same kids found with problem solving processes and measures
Identifying Disability and Sp Ed Placement Solves Problem
Dubious Effects of Special Education
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14. Meaningfulness of the Special Education Categories
Category Prevalence Range Low v. High
MR: 0.4% (NJ) to 3.0% (WV) Xs
ED: 0.1% (AR) to 2.0% (MN) 20Xs
LD: 2.7% (KY) to 9.3% (RI) Xs
Sp/L: 0.8% (HI) to 3.8% (WV) Xs
OHI: 0.1% (MS) to 2.1% (RI) 21Xs
All: 9.7% (CO) to 17.9% (RI) Xs
What Accounts for the Differences??; Also differences between LEAs within states
, age 6-17, school enrollment, Table AA-13,
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15. Progression of Research, Policy, and Legal Requirements
Scientific research with practice demonstrations leading to
Multiple policy analyses in presented in prestigious reports leading to
Multiple layers of Federal legal requirements leading to
Changes in state rules leading to
Scaling up efforts in states
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16. Foundations for Policy Changes: What Does Work? ABA, DI, CBM
Treatment Effect Size
Applied Behavior Analysis
CBM+Graphing+Formative
Evaluation + reinforcement
Explicit Instruction and Problem
Solving to 1.50
Comprehension Strategies
Kavale (2005), Learning Disabilities, 13,
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17. Policy and Legal Influences
NICHD LD Studies
Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S. & Griffin, P. (Eds.) (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction
National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council Panel Report
LD Summit Researchers Recommendations (Bradley et al., 2002)
Presidents Commission on Excellence in Special Education (2002) report,
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18. Disproportionality Legal Requirements
§ Overidentification and disproportionality
States must collect data on to determine if significant disproportionality by race exists re:
Identification of students with disabilities by category
Placement options used, i.e., LRE profile
Incidence and kind of disciplinary actions including suspensions and expulsions
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19. Disproportionality Legal Requirements
§ Overidentification and disproportionality continued
If significant disproportionality exists, the state must
Review and, if appropriate, revise the policies, procedures, and practices used in identification or placement
Allocate 15% of IDEA funds to EIS, especially focusing on children significantly overidentified
Require the LEA to publicly report on the revision of policies, practices, and procedures described under paragraph (b)(1) of this section.
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20. NRC Overrepresentation Panel: Digression: Disproportionality
What were the real issues?
Was IQ the issue?
Did an IQ test ban resolve disproportionality or improve outcomes
Reschly (1980) Right problem-Wrong Solution
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21. Centrality of Outcomes in Disproportionality
Judge Peckham commenting on the 1979 Trial Opinion ban on IQ tests,
“… clearly limited to the use of IQ tests in the assessment and placement of African-American students in dead end programs such as MMR.” (Crawford and Larry P., 1992, p. 15).
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22. Centrality of Outcomes in Disproportionality, cont.
“ Despite the Defendants’ attempts to characterize the court’s 1979 order as a referendum on the discriminatory nature of IQ testing, this court’s review of the decision reveals that the decision was largely concerned with the harm to African-American children resulting from improper placement in dead-end educational programs.” (Crawford and Larry P., 1992, p.23).”
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23. Overrepresentation Panel NRC Recommendations
Universal early screening for academic and behavioral problems (Ktg-Grade2)
Early identification-interventions
Multi-tiered academic and behavioral interventions
RtI for eligibility-eliminate IQ for LD
Eligibility: non-categorical for high incidence disabilities OR change current classification criteria for LD
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24. Overall Conclusion
“ There is substantial evidence with regard to both behavior and achievement that early identification and intervention is more effective than later identification and intervention.” Executive Summary, p. 5
Efficacy of special education with reading problems after grade 3?
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25. Overrepresentation Panel NRC Recommendations cont.
…. no IQ test would be required, and the results of an IQ test would not be a primary criterion on which eligibility rests. Because of the irreducible importance of context in the recognition and nurturance of achievement, the committee regards the effort to assess students’ decontextualized potential or ability as inappropriate and scientifically invalid. (p. 313).
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26. Commonalties in Policy Recommendations
Accountability-Improved results for all students and better results are possible!! (Gloeckler)
Integration of general, remedial, and sp ed through multiple tiers of intervention
Scientifically-based interventions with problem solving
Progress monitoring with formative evaluation
Decisions at all levels driven by child response to intervention
Abandon IQ-Achievement discrepancy in LD Identification
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27. Why Abandon IQ-Achievement Discrepancy??
Unreliable (especially stability of discrepancy scores)
Invalid (IQ discrepant poor readers do NOT respond better than IQ non-discrepant poor readers to reading instruction)
Causes Harm (Wait to Fail)
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28. Progression of Federal General and Special Education Legislation
s To s
Assistance Results
[__________________________________________]
ESEA EHA NCLB/
Rdg 1st IDEA 2004
Procedures Outcomes
Number Served Improvement
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29. Major Legal Themes (NCLB, IDEA)
Scientifically-based instruction
More frequent assessment, progress monitoring, formative evaluation
Well integrated multiple tiers of Intervention
Decisions driven by child responses to instruction-intervention in general, remedial, and special education
Alignment of resources to enhance positive outcomes
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30. Changes in Legal Requirements IDEA (2004)
‘‘(A) IN GENERAL.—Notwithstanding section 607(b), when determining whether a child has a specific learning disability as defined in section 602, a local educational agency shall not be required to take into consideration whether a child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability in oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skill, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation, or mathematical reasoning.
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31. Response to Intervention (IDEA, 2004)
‘‘(B) ADDITIONAL AUTHORITY.—In deter- mining whether a child has a specific learning disability, a local educational agency may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific, research-based intervention as a part of the evaluation procedures described in paragraphs (2) and (3).
Does response to intervention appear in the law?
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32. Final Regulation
NEW AND SIGNIFICANT:
(b must consider, as part of the evaluation described data that demonstrates that—
(1) Prior to, or as a part of the referral process, the child was provided appropriate high-quality, research-based instruction in regular education settings, consistent with section 1111(b)(8)(D) and (E) of the ESEA, including that the instruction was delivered by qualified personnel; and
(2) Data-based documentation of repeated assessments of achievement at reasonable intervals, reflecting formal assessment of student progress during instruction, was provided to the child's parents.
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33. Prevention-Early Intervention
LEA can use 15% of federal IDEA funds to support prevention and early identification-treatment
Purpose: minimize over-identification and unnecessary sp ed referrals
Provide academic and behavioral supports; and professional development re: early literacy and behavior
MUST use the 15% if LEA has “significant disproportionality
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34. Key Mechanism: Formative Evaluation
Multi-Tiered Academic Interventions of Increasing Intensity and Measurement Precision
Academics (Empirically validated instruction)
Tier I: General Education: All students
Tier II: Standard Protocol and Problem Solving: (about 10 to 20 weeks) Small group and individualized interventions with eligibility determination if response is insufficient
Tier III: More Intensive, Sustained Instruction Special education or Other Options (One year or more): More intense services brought to the students
Key Mechanism: Formative Evaluation
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35. Key Mechanism: Formative Evaluation
Multi-Tiered Behavior Interventions of Increasing Intensity and Measurement Precision
Behavior-Empirically validated
Level I: General Education : School wide positive discipline and effective classroom organization and management
Level II: Standard Protocol Treatments and Problem Solving: (10 to 20 weeks) Targeted individual interventions in general education and eligibility determination if necessary.
Level III: More Intensive, Sustained Instruction Special education or Other Options (One year or more): More intense services brought to the students
Key Mechanism: Formative Evaluation
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36. Formative Evaluation Frequent assessment of progress
Referenced to goals based on benchmarks toward passing state tests
Decision rules regarding modification of goals or instructional programs
All decisions about student needs and instructional intensity are based on child RTI
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37. Characteristics of Effective Formative Evaluation Measures
Direct measures of skills
Natural settings
Efficient re: costs and time required
Sensitive to small increments of growth in relevant skills
Results can be graphed in relation to goals
Reliable in terms of stability
Valid re: relationship to broad indicators of competence
Example: CBM oral reading fluency and reading comprehension
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38. Tier I: General Education, Universal Stage, Primary Prevention
Academics and Behavior
Scientifically-based
Explicit instruction
Systematic intervention
Inter-related, reciprocal relationships, mutually supported
Discuss separately here, but acknowledge the essential inter-relationship of academics and behavior
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39. Tier I: Academic Interventions
Scientifically-based instruction in reading
Curricula-content-Big ideas, e.g., reading
Phonemic Awareness
Alphabetic principles
Fluency
Vocabulary
Comprehension
Study of IHEs pre-service preparation in rdg
14 of 72 taught all 5 components and many taught none, see
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40. IHEs and SBRR Five Components
Source
Sample
N=72
5 Components
Phonemic
Alphabetic
Fluency
Vocabulary
Compre-hension
43%
N=31
13%
15% 7%
11%
11%
N=11
N=8
N=8
N=9
N=5
Components

41. Tier I: Academic Interventions
Teaching Methodology Explicit Instruction
Modeling, guided practice, practice to automaticity, integration with other skills
I do it; We do it; You do it with feedback, You do it independently, You do it automatically
Frequent responding with feedback
Brisk pace
Systematic Instruction
Sequential, Hierarchical
Include all reading components each day
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42. Tier I: Assessment: Academics
Routine Assessment of Progress
Screen all students, begin in kindergarten; 3 times per year with appropriate early literacy measures
More intense instruction and monitoring within classroom for students below trajectories toward passing state benchmark tests
Grouping, instructional materials, time, paraprofessionals
Increase assessment to 2 Xs per month
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43. Benchmark: Winter KTG 25 sounds correct/min.
KTG: Initial Sound Fluency Fall to January Yr.
Benchmark: Winter KTG
25 sounds correct/min.
New KTG Teacher and Traditional Instruction
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44. Benchmark: Winter KTG 25 sounds correct/min.
KTG: Initial Sound Fluency Fall to January Yr.
Benchmark: Winter KTG
25 sounds correct/min.
Experienced Teacher Direct Instruction
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45. Phoneme Seg. Fluency: Jan to May 05-06 Yr. Benchmark: 35 correct
New KTG Teacher and Traditional Instruction
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46. Benchmark: May 35 per minute
Phoneme Seg. Fluency: Jan to May Yr.
Benchmark: May 35 per minute
Experienced Teacher Direct Instruction
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47. Benchmark: 25 correct per minute
Nonsense Word Fluency: Jan to May Yr.
Benchmark: 25 correct per minute
New KTG Teacher and Traditional Instruction
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48. Benchmark: 25 correct per minute
Nonsense Word Fluency: Jan to May Yr.
Benchmark: 25 correct per minute
Experienced Teacher Direct Instruction
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49. Benchmark: Winter KTG 25 sounds correct/min.
KTG: Initial Sound Fluency Fall to January Yr.
Benchmark: Winter KTG
25 sounds correct/min.
Students needing greater Gen’l Ed monitoring and Interventions
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50. Benchmark: Winter First Grade
1st Gr. Nonsense
Word
Fluency
Benchmark: Winter First Grade
50 Words Per Minute ??
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51. Second Grade Oral Reading Fluency Benchmark: End of 1st=42 WCM
Winter=71 WCM
End of 2nd=100 WCM ??
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52. Behavioral Assessment and CBM Measures
Focused on determination of change
Formative evaluation critical
Tied to effective practices and better outcomes
Applications in general, remedial, and special education
Identification of disabilities-integrates identification with treatment
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53. Why Behavior Assessment (including CBM)
Determine current levels in academics and behavior; degree of need
Monitor progress, assess change
Foundation for formative evaluation-improving interventions
Determine success of interventions
Decisions based in child response to interventions
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54. Foundations of CBM Deno & Mirkin (1977) Breakthrough
Brief samples of behavior
Use of oral reading fluency samples
Production per unit of time
Fluency and accuracy combined
Words read correct per minute
Math-digits correct
Spelling-letters correct
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55. Prior Barriers to CBM Use
Cumbersome for practitioners, developing own passages
Conceptual issues: Passages from curriculum or generic passages?
Teachers’ concerns about comprehension: Word calling??
Inertia; satisfaction with current practices
IDEA: assessment of change not required
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56. Combines fluency (speed) and accuracy
Reading CBM
Combines fluency (speed) and accuracy
Broad range of competencies including
Letter naming (Ktg)
Sound identification (Ktg)
Nonsense words or real word identification (Ktg to first grade)
Oral reading fluency (mid first to high school
Comprehension (maze, other methods)
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57. Importance of Standardized CBM Procedures
Standardized meaning uniformity in administration, scoring, interpretation
Prerequisite to use of data in
Determining risk status within classroom or school
Measuring change for individuals or groups
Predicting later performance
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58. Oral Reading Fluency What is it? Why do it? Word Calling Myth
Reading aloud fluently and accurately from text.
Why do it?
Indicator of proficiency in reading that is sensitive to growth
Highly correlated with performance on standardized tests and tests of comprehension
Provides information that may be used to evaluate effects of instruction
Word Calling Myth
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59. Administering Oral Reading Passages
Essential Items
-One student copy
-One administration copy
-Timer or stopwatch (make sure to time exactly 1 min)
-Administration script
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60. Instructions to Child
When I say “please begin” start reading aloud at the top of this page. Read across the page. [Demonstrate by pointing] Try to read each word. If you come to a word you don’t know, I’ll tell it to you. If you get to the end of the page, start over. Be sure to do your best reading. Are there any questions? [Pause] Please begin.
Reschly RTI

61. Examiner’s Administration Rules
After reading instructions to students,
Start timer. If the student fails to say the first word of the passage after 3 sec., tell him/her the word and mark it incorrect. If the student stops or struggles with a word for 3 seconds, tell the student the word and mark it incorrect. If the student reaches the end of the page and does not continue, point to the first word and ask the student to start over. At the end of 1 minute, place a bracket after the last word and say, please stop.
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62. Scoring Rules
Words must be pronounced correctly to be counted as correct
(disregard if mispronunciations due to speech problems or dialect)
Ignore inserted or repeated words
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63. ORF Passage: Making Friends (from Deno and Amy Reschly)
There once was a little girl named Ann who
was very shy. She was too shy to make friends
Ann lived in an apartment building with her mother 28
and brother. Ann liked to play at the playground
near her apartment building
One day Ann was playing on the swings when 50
Total words read = 49
Words read incorrectly = 3
Words read correctly = 46
Reschly RTI

64. What is recorded? Give 3 Passages Record the Median Score Example:
If a student’s scores on the 3 passages were:
24 words read correctly
38 words read correctly
35 words read correctly
GO TO VIDEO
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65. Sample passage from DIBELS, http://dibels.uoregon.edu/
The Ant Hill
Dad and I took a hike in the woods. We walked for a long
time and stopped to take a rest. We sat down on a log and had a 30
drink of water. A big hill was nearby
Dad said, "Look, there's an ant hill."
I walked up to the hill and took a closer peek. At first it
looked just like a dirt hill. Then I noticed a few ants running 72
around. I looked closer. I saw little ants carrying pieces of
mushroom. The pieces were almost as big as the ants
"What are they doing, Dad?" I asked
"They're taking food inside the hill. They probably have 109
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66. Sample passage from DIBELS, http://dibels.uoregon.edu/
The Snow Person
This morning when I woke up it was freezing cold. I looked 12
out and the ground was covered with white. It had snowed 23
during the night. Mom said there would be no school because of 35
the snow. She said I could go outside and play in the snow. I had 50
to eat a hot breakfast first
I dressed in my warm clothes. I wore mittens and a stocking 68
cap. Mom helped me with my rubber hoots. I was so bundled up 81
1 could hardly walk
The grass was covered with soft snow and it was very quiet. 97
Then all my friends came out to play. It wasn't quiet for long! 110
My friends helped me make a snow person. We made snowballs 121
first. We rolled them up until they were big. Then we stacked 133
three big balls of snow on top of each other
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67. Resources for Assessment and Interventions
Good & Kaminski: DIBELS
Gary Germann and Mark Shinn AIMSWEB ;
James Wright
Vaughn-Gross Reading Center
Florida Reading Center-Torgesen/Wagner
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68. Math CBM
Scoring rule: Count the number of correctly written digits in the problems 64
x 722
128 Answer=
128
448__
46208
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69. Math CBM
Scoring rule: Count the number of correctly written digits in the problems 64
x 722
128 3 pts Answer=17
pts
pts
pts
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70. Math CBM
Scoring rule: Count the number of correctly written digits in the problems 64
x 722
126 2 pts Answer=12
pts
pts
pts
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71. Tier I Assessment of Behavior
Focus on classroom and individuals
Screen all children for behavior
Skills, performance, emotional regulation
Aggressive behaviors-identify and treat at young ages
Social isolation
Bullying
Classroom related social skills (or academic enablers
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72. Tier I: Importance of Classroom Organization and Behavior Management
Kellam, Baltimore Schools
Students randomly assigned to 1st grade teachers, then classroom was the unit of analysis
Classrooms observed during first 9 wks., high rates of disruptive behavior and aggression, large differences across classrooms
Classrooms randomly assigned to,
Experimental condition: Good Behavior Game (Barrish, et al, 1969; Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1991) vs.
Control condition of in-service on general curriculum issues
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73. Kellam Research: Classroom Organization and Management
Good Behavior Game (Barrish, et al., 1969)
Group contingency
Two groups formed into teams
Define rules and positive behaviors
Teams compete for positive consequences
Team with highest rate of appropriate behaviors earn “rewards”
Lining up first, Help teacher pick-up classroom, free time, etc.
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74. Kellam Research: Effects of Good Behavior Game Were Statistically Significant
Aggression and disruptive behavior continued in control classrooms
Marked reduction in experimental condition
Experimental classrooms had higher academic productivity and achievement
Aggressive students in both conditions followed through 6th grade and first grade classroom effects persisted
First grade experience sets academic and behavioral trajectory
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75. Tier I: Implications of Behavior
Classroom organization and behavior management are crucial to student success
“Teacher’s skills at classroom management were then critical to children’s socialization, particularly in the face of family poverty.” (Kellam, et al., 1998a, p. 182)
“Teacher training typically does not provide effective methods and experience in classroom behavior management.” (Kellam, et al., 1998, p. 182).
Relatively simple, cost effective interventions can produce large and persistent effects
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76. Summary of Tier I Universal level, all students
Scientifically-based, right content and direct instruction
Greater intensity and increased measurement precision for students below benchmark trajectories
Criterion for success? 80% to 85% are at or above benchmarks
Assess classrooms, schools, districts
Identify students needing additional assistance
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77. Example of Tier II academic intervention
Tier II: Secondary Prevention (Strategic Intervention) (Standard Protocol and Problem Solving)
Goals: Move performance to benchmark trajectories and, If needed, consider more intensive interventions
Example of Tier II academic intervention
Small group, N=4-5, pull out, similar needs
30 to 35 minutes per day in addition to classroom instruction
Progress monitoring weekly
10 to 20 weeks of instruction
5-component reading interventions, with emphasis on weak components
Early identification-early intervention in general educ.
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78. Standard Protocol Reading Models for Tier II
U Texas, Vaughn
Florida State Torgesen
Reading five domains taught each day
Direct instruction
Weekly progress monitoring
Individual graphs, progress against goals referenced to benchmarks
Decisions determined by student response
Fade Tier II and return to general education
Consider Tier III based on insufficient response
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79. Tier II: Behavior
Targeted individual interventions in classrooms and in standard protocol academic settings
Application of problem solving steps and criteria
Behavior consultation model (not discussed here)
Behavior is significant predictor of Tier I and Tier II effects
Improved behavior often is crucial to persistence of academic interventions effects over time and generalization to classroom settings
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80. Graph Current Status Words Correct Per Minute Benchmark=24 Egbert=11
Weeks
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81. Determine Goal: Class=1
Determine Goal: Class=1.5 wd growth per week; Egbert Goal: 2 wd growth per week
Words Correct Per Minute
Benchmark
Class=24
Egbert=11
Egbert goal line
Weeks
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82. Monitor Egbert’s Progress Relative to Goal
Words Correct Per Minute
Benchmark
Class=24
Egbert=11
Egbert goal line
Weeks
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83. Formative Evaluation: Change Intervention
Words Correct Per Minute
Benchmark
Class=24
Egbert=11
Egbert goal line
Weeks
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84. Continue Intervention and Monitor Progress
Change
Intervention
Words Correct Per Minute
Benchmark
Class=24
Egbert=11
Egbert goal line
Weeks
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85. Raise Goal to 2.5 WCM Growth
Change
Intervention
Change Goal
Words Correct Per Minute
Benchmark
Class=24
Egbert=11
Egbert goal line
Weeks
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86. Continue Intervention and Monitor Progress
Change
Intervention
Change Goal
Fade Tier II
Words Correct Per Minute
Benchmark
Class=24
Egbert=11
Egbert goal line
Weeks
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87. Decisions Re: Egbert Fade Tier II academic intervention
Reduce number of weekly sessions
Monitor progress to ensure continued progress
Evaluate behavioral intervention (not shown here)
Depending on results, consider enhancing, fading, or discontinuing
Do NOT consider more intensive interventions
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88. Prevention of Special Education
President’s Commission (2002) Values and Outcomes:
Efficacy of special education is not universally documented—lowered expectations, reduced academic press
Later educational opportunities typically are better if learning and behavior problems can be resolved in early grades
Probable later career opportunities are better if students can complete general education programs
Prevention and early intervention enhance positive outcomes and expand educational and career opportunities
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89. Case II: Egberta, Academic Intervention
Egberta (Egbert’s twin sister)
Similar performance in reading
No behavioral issues, described as quiet, cooperative child who tries hard and does not disrupt the class
Would not have been referred by teacher, but discovered through universal screening
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90. Egberta: Determine Goal: Class=1
Egberta: Determine Goal: Class=1.5 wd growth per week; Egberta Goal: 2 wd growth per week
Words Correct Per Minute
Benchmark
Class=24
Egberta=11
Egbert goal line
Weeks
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91. Monitor Egberta’s Progress Relative to Goal
Words Correct Per Minute
Benchmark
Class=24
Egberta=11
Egberta goal line
Weeks
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92. Change Egberta’s Intervention
Words Correct Per Minute
Benchmark
Class=24
Egberta=11
Egberta goal line
Weeks
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93. Implement Revised Intervention and Continue to Monitor Progress
Change
Intervention
Words Correct Per Minute
Benchmark
Egberta goal line
Weeks
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94. Implement Second Intervention Revision
Change
Intervention
Words Correct Per Minute
Benchmark
Egberta goal line
Weeks
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95. Gap Not Closing: Consider Eligibility and More Intensive Interventions
Change
Intervention
Class
WCM=54
Words Correct Per Minute
Benchmark
Egberta
WCM=32
Weeks
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96. Old Models of SLD Cognitive processing option ??
Scatter is normal, virtually all children will show significant strengths and weaknesses
Pattern of cognitive processes unrelated to
More accurate SLD identification
Improved instruction
Improved child outcomes
No scientifically-based studies showing benefits of designing instruction from cognitive profiles
Vested interests? and Burden of proof
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97. Cognitive Processing and Interventions: ATI or Matching Strengths Effects
Treatment/Intervention Effect Size
Modality Matched Instr. (Aud.) +.03
Modality Matched Instr. (Vis.) +.04
Simultaneous/Successive ??
Right Brain/Left Brain .??
Cultural Leaning Style
NOTHING FOR KIDS
FEEL GOOD ASSESSMENT
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98. Results of ATI Research
King of England describing his Danish brother-in-law: There is nothing there.
Cronbach, (1975). “Once we attend to interactions, we enter a hall of mirrors that extends to infinity.” (p. 119)
Kavale (1999) No supportive data, but cannot kill “Phoenix-like” processing claims
Vaughn and Linan-Thompson (2003), “There is no empirical support for the use of modality-matched instruction or learning styles as a means to enhance outcomes for students with LD.” (p. 142).
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99. Challenge to Cognitive Processing Advocates in SLD
Show the field one scientifically-based study confirming a statistically significant interaction between cognitive processing pattern and teaching methodology OR
Document how cognitive processing can be used by practitioners to make reliable and valid SLD diagnoses, using the joint APA-AERA-NCME Test Standards?
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100. What is a Comprehensive Evaluation
Note Federal Regulation,
(g) The child is assessed in all areas related to the suspected disability, including, if appropriate, health, vision, hearing, social and emotional status, general intelligence, academic performance, communicative status, and motor abilities. (34 C.F.R
Meaning? Note “if appropriate”
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101. Federal Requirements Multiple domains must be considered
Screening in multiple domains followed by, if appropriate, ……
If potential educationally related deficits are suggested by screening, THEN
In depth assessment in the domain
Principle: If screening suggests adequate functioning, then in depth assessment is wasteful and irrelevant
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102. Comprehensive Evaluation: After Tier II
Domain
Screening
If depth, if appropriate
Possible
Decision
Health
Nurse, records
Referral
MD Eval
Medical condition
Vision
Ophthalmology
Visual Impairment
Hearing
Otological, Audiologist
Hearing Impairment
Intelligence
Records, Tch ratings, ach. tests
Psychologist, Gen’l Intell Functioning (GIF)
Sig subaverage GIF, possible MR, possible sp ed
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103. Comprehensive Evaluation: After Tier II
Domain
Screening
In Depth, If Appropriate
Possible Decision
Reading
Class work, Tch eval., CBM, group tests
Individual tests, diagnostic tests
More intense intervention, possible sp ed
Math
Adaptive Behavior
Records, Tch checklist
Observations Parent interview
Possible eligibility for MR
Written Language
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104. Comprehensive Evaluation: Post Tier II
Domain
Screening
In depth, if appropriate
Possible Decision
Communication
Tchr Observations, Sp/L screening
Sp/L eval, tests, obs.
Sp/Lang need, therapy
Behavior
Tchr judgment, checklists, nomination
Observation, Interview, Indiv intervention
Emotional Regulation
More intense intervention, possible sp ed
Motor
Physical, Tch, PE observations
Medical evaluation
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105. Egberta Consideration of Eligibility
Levels Difference: Large performance differences compared to peers and benchmark expectations in relevant domains of behavior
Rate Difference: Large differences in rate of learning compared to peers and trajectories toward benchmark standards when provided with high quality interventions implemented over a significant period
Documented Adverse Impact on Education
Documented Need for Special Education
Exit Criteria
Exclusion Factors: Rule out MR etc.
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106. Digression: Neuropsychology and Neuroscience
Distinguish between neuropsychology and neuroscience
Neuropsychology is dependent on psychometric profiles
Difference scores are less reliable
Scatter is normal
Base rates for profile variations
Flat profiles are atypical
Nearly all have profile variations
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107. Neuroscience Findings
Instruction in decoding changes brain functioning on fMRI
Neuroscience findings generally refute traditional neuropsychology with learning problems
Neurological functioning more dynamic, less static
Little practical application of fMRI to current school psychology practice
No unique LD markers!!
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108. Digression: fMRI Studies
Science article: fMRIs of boys and girls engaged in decoding-Girls used both hemispheres, boys one
Implications??
Do fMRI to find real LD?
Abandon IQ and go to fMRIs
Trade the hatchback for an 18 wheeler
Cost issues: $3m per machine, plus maintenance
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109. More fMRI Implications
Delay reading until both hemispheres work for males simultaneously
So that is going to happen?
Equity issue---restrict girls to one hemisphere; hemispherectomy
Hey, fair is fair
Improve male-female communication if females could use only one hemisphere at a time
Wait until I tell Krisann
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110. RTI in Special Education Programs
Special education programs should be,
Scientifically based
Matched to student need
Progress monitoring against goals (exit criteria)
Formative evaluation
Goal of passing benchmark tests, exiting
Current special education programs????
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111. Special Education for Students with High Incidence Disabilities
Mild Mental Retardation
Emotional Disturbance
Specific Learning Disability
Other Health Impaired-Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Rate is 1% or more of the general student population
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112. High Incidence Disabilities
School age identification
Usually not identified as adults
Teacher referral due to poor achievement plus, for many, disruptive behavior
No identifiable biological anomaly, normal appearance
Reading is a major concern for most (70%-80%)
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113. Improving Special Education with RTI
Diagnosis (see previous segment)
Graphs showing insufficient progress with high quality general education interventions at Tiers I and II
Other Tier III interventions are not sufficient
Special education eligibility determined
Then what????
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114. Improving IEPs
Connect individual evaluation with IEP with Special Education Interventions
Critical IEP Components (relevant to the intervention) (not an exhaustive list)
Present Levels of Educational Performance
Measurable Annual Goals
Specifically designed instruction provided by qualified personnel
Participation in the general education curriculum and state wide assessments
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115. Present Levels of Educational Performance
Must be related to the full and individual evaluation
Desirable
Stated in terms of the school curriculum
Specification of gaps between current performance and trajectories toward reaching benchmarks
Exit criteria for special education dismissal
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116. Measurable Annual Goals
Goals are described in objective, measurable terms
Goals are stated in terms of the general education curriculum
Rate of progress specified, graphed
Skills specified
Progress compared to goals
Interventions changed or goals changed depending on progress
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117. Specially Designed Instruction
Uniqueness of special education is NOT in different methodologies BUT IS IN
Intensity, frequency of progress monitoring and formative evaluation, precision of goals, and specificity of instruction
Intensity involves time, group size
Specificity of instruction, thoroughness of skills specification, intentional teaching, integration with other skills
Application of explicit, systematic instructional methods
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118. Special Education Final Remarks
Special education can be effective
Set of services brought to students, not a place
Integrated with general education curriculum
Strong accountability
Implementation of scientifically based interventions with
Specification of goals
Frequent progress monitoring
Formative evaluation
Exit criteria
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119. Critical Skills/Competencies
Problem solving-interviewing skills
Behavior assessment including CBM
Powerful instructional interventions
Powerful behavior change interventions
Relationship skills
Tailoring assessment to referral concerns
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120. Continuing Education: Problem solving and system design
Reschly, D. J., Tilly, W. D. III, & Grimes, J. P. (Eds.). (1999). Special education in transition: Functional assessment and noncategorical programming. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
Bergan, J. R., & Kratochwill, T. R. (1990). Behavioral consultation and therapy. New York: Plenum.
Shinn, M. R. (Ed.). (1989). Curriculum-based measurement: Assessing special children. New York: Guilford Press.
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121. Continuing Education: CBM, CBE, Behavioral Assessment
Shinn, M. R. (Ed.) (1998). Advanced applications of curriculum-based measurement: New York: Guilford Press.
Shapiro, E. S. (Ed.) (1996). Academic skills problems: Direct assessment and intervention (2nd Ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Shapiro, E. S., & Kratochwill, T. R. (Eds.). (2000). Behavioral assessment in schools: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd Ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
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122. Continuing Education: Academic and Behavioral Interventions
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., & Mayer, G. R. (1991). Behavior analysis for lasting change. Fort Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart, Winston.
Howell, K. & Nolet, V. (2000). Curriculum-based evaluation: Teaching and decision making (3rd Ed.). Atlanta, GA: Wadsworth.
Shinn, M.R., Walker, H.M., & Stoner, G. (2002).  Interventions for academic and behaviors problems II:  Preventive and remedial approaches.  Bethesda, MD: NASP
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123. Is the Past the Future? Paradigm Shift
Reschly & Ysseldyke, 2002, Vision of a different future
“Insight” absent explicit ties to effective interventions is useless to the student
Why change? Better answers to old problems Improved knowledge base and technology
Different questions-Eligibility vs Outcomes
Outcomes criteria guide practice
Reschly, D. J., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (2002). Paradigm shift: The past is not the future. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.) Best practices in school psychology IV (4th Ed.) (pp. 3-20). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
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124. Correlational to Experimental Science
Cronbach’s Two Disciplines
Correlational: Promote human welfare through measurement of natural human variations and then assigning (placing) persons in treatments that are appropriate to their abilities:
In school psychology, refer-test-place
Experimental: Promote human welfare by implementing effective treatments
School psychology, problem solving
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125. Cronbach’s Merger: ATI
The ATI Manifesto: “For any potential problem there is some best group of treatments to use and some best allocation of persons to treatment.” (Cronbach, 1957, p.680)
Failure of ATI: "Once we attend to interactions, we enter a hall of mirrors that extends to infinity." (Cronbach, 1975, p. 119
ATI Today: Phoenix like (Kavale & Forness, 1999); No evidence to support ATI with LD (Vaughn and Linan-Thompson, 2003)
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126. Paradigm Shift: Problem Solving and RTI
Experimental methods: Time Series Analyses; "One monitors responses to the treatment and adjusts it .." (Cronbach, 1975, p. 126).
Problem Solving connects scientific instructional-intervention literature to academic and behavioral needs of children
RtI: Criteria to determine needs, make changes in programs, and select more intensive interventions as needed
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127. Paradigm Shift: What Happens to School Psychologists
Roles change, less assessment and more intervention
Roles move toward universally endorsed ideal roles since 1955
School psychology employment remains stable or grows
School psychology satisfaction is the same or higher
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128. Modern Foundations of Problem Solving and RtI
Bergan (Kratochwill) Behavioral Consultation
Multiple step problem solving process
Connects science to practice in terms of child outcomes
Deno & Mirkin Data-based program modification
Assessment of academic and behavior growth with intervention revision rules
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129. Purpose of Our Activities The Why of Our Professions
Some Questions:
1. Outcomes criterion: Effects of services?
2. Predict outcomes OR change behavior and disconfirm predictions?
3. Focus on hypothetical constructs or increase defined competencies in crucial domains of behavior
4. Expand opportunities for meaningful choices or make placements
Can We Do Better??
If So, What is Our Obligation?
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130. Current Roles of School Psychologists in the U.S. and Iowa
22.6
Estimated Hours Per Week
14.6
12.2
9.2
7.3
6.6
3.6
2.6
Problem Solving Consultation
Assessment
Direct Intervention
Systems Organizational Consultation
Research/
Evaluation
School Psychology Role
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131. School Psychology Assessment in Traditional
and Alternative Delivery Systems
28.69
20.44
18.16
17.59
Times Per Month
10.64
10.49
7.11
0.44
0.00
0.04
Ability Educational Behavior Projectives V-M Pre-Sch Social/
Observation Fam Emotional A.B
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132. Assessment of Educational Skills:
U.S. and Iowa
12.12
4.04
3.51
2.88
1.49
1.43
1.61
0.52
0.0
0.00
0.03
0.00
K-TEA Key-Math PIAT WRMT WRAT CBM/CBE W-J ACH WIAT Other
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133. School Psychologists’ Job Satisfaction
in the U.S. and Iowa
4.64
3.81
3.54
High
Job
Satisfaction
Low
3.34
2.95
2.29
Job Satisfaction Dimension
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134. National School Psychology Growth
30,154 in 03-04
Trend Line
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135. Summary
Moving from where we are to where we need to be is a huge challenge for the new century
BUT I Believe
The Best Is Yet To Be
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