1. Traditional Chinese Architecture

2. Content 1. The Characteristics of Chinese Ancient Architecture
2. Types of Ancient Chinese Architecture
3. Chinese Bridges
4. Typical Chinese Structures and Ornaments

3. 1. The Characteristics of Chinese Ancient Architecture
Traditionally, Chinese architecture, from the village houses to imperial palaces, features the following characteristics:
1) Timber framework
2) Balance and symmetrical Layout
3) the elegant outlines(轮廓) and varied
structures(结构).
4) Colorful decorations and ornaments

4. 1)Timber framework
Ancient Chinese architecture featured timber framework as the supporting structure. Walls were not load bearing; they were only used to separate spaces. The timber frame supported most of the weight of the house, so windows, doors, and walls were not restricted to certain locations.

5. The advantage/disadvantage of timber framework
Advantages:
— materials for constructing such structures were easily available and construction methods were relatively simple
— the wooden frame structures are shock-resistant, because the parts are linked by tenon-and-mortise (榫卯) joints so that they are safer in earthquakes
— the wooden framework bears all the weight of the building, which makes the installation of both the outer and inner walls flexible and able to be placed in accordance with practical needs

6. Disadvantages:
— Their durability is not as good as structures of brick or stone.
— wood grows very slowly and cannot be cut on a large scale recklessly.

7. 2) Balance and symmetrical Layout
Chinese structures are based on the principle of balance and symmetry(对称). The main structure is the axis（轴线）. The secondary structures are positioned as two wings on either side to form the main room and yard.

8. 故宫鸟瞰图 Bird’s eye view of the Imperial Palace

9. 3) the elegant outlines(轮廓) and varied structures(结构)
The ancient Chinese architectures are greatly praised for the elegant outlines(轮廓) and varied structures(结构)，which represent the characteristics of different styles and local features of ancient Chinese architectures.

11. 4) Colorful decorations and ornaments
Architects in ancient China pay special attention to the ornaments .They use different colors or paintings, decorations inside and outside.

12. 4）-1 The building materials
Wooden ancient Chinese buildings and structures were the most common but some were built with either red or grey bricks.

13. 4）-2 The artistic roof design
Ancient buildings tend to have huge roofs with extended eaves（屋檐）. This was to ensure enough lighting and avoid the dampening of the walls. Different roofs are matched with different styles of buildings according to their ranks and importance.

14. 正脊 斜脊

15. 三、中国古建筑的欣赏——屋顶
（一）屋顶式样
（1）重檐>单檐
（2）庑殿式>歇山式>悬山式>硬山式
(3)重檐庑殿式>重檐歇山式>单檐庑殿式>单檐歇山式>悬山式>硬山式
庑殿 Hip roof
歇山 gable and hiproof
悬山顶 hanging peak
硬山顶 Hard Top

16. 正脊 斜脊
（一）屋顶形制
1、庑殿式。俗称四面坡式。屋顶由位于顶端的正脊和四个角的斜脊构成。有正面前后两个大坡面和侧面左右两个小坡面。庑殿式建筑，在中国封建等级制度中，是最高级别的建筑，只有皇帝才能拥有和居住。

17. 庑殿式---太和殿
(重檐庑殿式)

18. 大成殿 重檐庑殿

19. 2、歇山式。在正脊左右两端各建一道与之相垂直的墙面，其下部再接一个略有弧度的斜坡小屋顶。从侧面看，向下的两条脊好像是在半路上歇了一下，然后就改变了方向，折向另一个方向延伸出去了，所以侧面的上半部形成了一个类似三角形的样子。
歇山式建筑，在中国封建社会等级制度中，级别低于庑殿式建筑，常作为皇宫里的非主体建筑及王府、达官贵人（五品以上官员）的府邸、官署、寺庙等建筑的形制。

20. 保和殿_屋顶为重檐歇山顶

21. 3、悬山式。俗称两面坡式。屋顶只有正面前后两个斜坡屋面，且屋面两侧悬伸在山墙之外(俗称挑山、出山)。从侧面看，屋面的檩头在山墙处没有停下来，而是又外挑了一段，悬山之名由此而来。悬山式建筑在中国封建社会的等级制度中，属级别较低的一种建筑，多为宫廷、官署、寺庙中的杂用性建筑，也是民居的一种形制。

22. 檩 山墙

23. 4、硬山式。也俗称两面坡式，屋顶亦为正面前后两个坡面，但与悬山式建筑的不同之处，是屋面两端不悬伸于山墙之外，而是与山墙齐头。硬山式建筑在中国封建社会属级别最低一等，是民居常用的一种形制。

25. 3、 5、攒尖：平面为圆形或多边形，上为锥形的屋顶，没有正脊，有若干屋脊交于上端。
宋代称为“撮尖”，清代称“攒尖”。依其平面有圆形攒尖、三角攒尖、四角攒尖、八角攒尖。也有单檐和重檐之分。多见于亭阁式建筑。 3、

26. 中和殿——四角攒尖顶，正中为鎏金宝顶

27. 六角攒尖

28. 天坛的祈年殿是我国古代最高等级的建筑

29. 4)-3 the animal figures on the roofs (吻兽)
On their roofs, ancient Chinese palaces, temples and mansions have zoomorphic (兽形的) ornaments (装饰品) called wenshou (吻兽). Some are on the main ridges, and some on the sloping and branch ridges. These on roof ridges on the top of palaces, temples and other ancient buildings form an important part of traditional Chinese architecture.

30. 故宫的吻兽

31. The monstrous (怪异的) figures at either end of the main ridges is called chiwen (鸱吻). It appears roughly like the tail of a fish and looks as if it were ready to devour (吞没) the whole ridge. According to Chinese mythology, chiwen is one of the sons of the Dragon King who stirs up waves and changes them into rains. So chiwen are placed at either end of the main ridge for their magical power to conjure (施魔法) up a heavy rain to put out any fire. At the end of the sloping and branch ridges, there are often a group of smaller animals, their sizes and numbers decided by the status of the owner of the building in the feudal hierarchy (等级制度).

32. The largest number(11) of zoomorphic ornaments is found on the Taihedian Throne Hall (太和殿) in the Forbidden City, all with unusual names. A god riding a phoenix (or rooster (雄鸡)), the first animal, leads the flock. Behind the god, come a dragon, a phoenix, a lion, a heavenly horse, a sea horse and five other mythological (神话的) animals. Qianqinggong (乾清宫, the Palace of Heavenly Purity) has nine animal figures; Kunninggong (坤宁宫, the Palace of Female Tranquility (平静)) has seven; the other twelve halls used to house the imperial concubines (妾) each have five. Placing animal figures on roof-ridges has been a traditional practice for at least 2,100 years. It is believed that an immortal being and various beasts serve to protect sacred buildings and keep evil spirits far away.

33. The eleven zoomorphic ornaments on the roof of the Taihedian Throne Hall (太和殿) in the Forbidden City
太和殿的吻兽

34. 4）-3 吻兽
吻兽：是通常置于古代大型建筑的屋脊上的“避邪物”，传说可以驱逐来犯的厉鬼，守护家宅的平安，并可冀求丰衣足食、人丁兴旺。
在宫殿建筑中，往往在四翼角的戗脊上塑有蹲兽，一般说吻兽越多级别越高，且它多以奇数出现。在我国宫殿建筑中，吻兽最多的为11个。
戗脊：在有不同方向的承梁板的屋顶中,其两个斜屋面交接处所形成的外角，又称岔脊。
在最高等级的建筑中，仙人走兽的排列次序是：最前为仙人，然后是龙、凤、狮子、麒麟、天马、海马、鱼、獬、犼、猴。等级较低时，走兽的数目也相应减少。

35. 吻兽排列有着严格的规定,按照建筑等级的高低而有数量的不同,最多的是故宫太和殿上的装饰。这在中国宫殿建筑史上是独一无二的，显示了至高无上的重要地位。在其它古建筑上一般最多使用九个走兽。这里有严格的等级界限，只有太和殿才能十一样齐全。

36. 螭吻:也叫鸱吻、鸱尾等。形状像四脚蛇剪去了尾巴，这位龙子好在险要处东张西望，也喜欢吞火。
相传汉武帝建柏梁殿时，有人上疏说大海中有一种鱼，虬尾似鸱鸟，也就是鹞鹰，能喷浪降雨，可以用来厌辟火灾，于是便塑其形象在殿角、殿脊、屋顶之上。

37. 天安门建筑上的吻兽

39. the carved design
龙纹高于动物纹；动物纹高于其他纹
动物纹
花鸟纹

40. Colored paint
Colored paint not only functions as decoration, but also as a sign or symbol of protection. Initially, paint was used on wood for antisepsis（防腐） while later it became an architectural ornament.

41. 2. Types of Ancient Chinese Architecture
1) Classification by structure
2）Classification by function

42. 2. Types of Ancient Chinese Architecture
1) Classification by structure
Chinese pavilions亭
Terraces台
Multi-story buildings 楼
Storyed pavilions (usu. two)阁

43. 2）Classification by function
Imperial Palaces（宫殿建筑）
Traditional Chinese Gardens（园林建筑）
Altars and Temples （坛庙建筑）
Religious Structures（宗教建筑）
Tombs and Mausoleums（陵墓建筑）
Residential Houses（民居建筑）

44. 2）-1
Chinese pavilions
Chinese Pavilions are covered structures without surrounding walls.
Types of Chinese Pavilion:
Round, square, triangular, hexagonal(六角亭), octagonal（八角亭）pavilions, etc.

45. Functions of Chinese Pavilion: Practical function:
— used for military and governmental purposes
— as a place for rest
— as a roof to a stone tablet
Aesthetic function:
Pavilions provided a place to sit and enjoy the scenery, and they also became part of the scenery itself, being attractive structures.

46. Functions of terraces :
As an ancient architectural structure of Chinese, the tai was a very much elevated terrace with a flat top, generally built of earth and stone and surfaced with brick.
Functions of terraces :
— as an observatory (观象台）
— as beacon towers(烽火台) along the Great Wall
— in honor of the sincere friendship

47. multi-story buildings
A lou can refer to any building of two or more storeys with a horizontal main ridge.
Functions of multi-story buildings :
— for military use
— as private homes
— as belvederes（望景楼）
— as bell and drum towers

48. storyed pavilions (usu. two)
Functions of storyed pavilions :
— used in ancient times for the storage of important articles and documents
— a place where educated men used to gather to write articles and hold banquets
— used for enjoying the sights

49. Classification by function
Imperial Palaces（宫殿建筑）
Traditional Chinese Gardens（园林建筑）
Altars and Temples （坛庙建筑）
Religious Structures（宗教建筑）
Tombs and Mausoleums（陵墓建筑）
Residential Houses（民居建筑）

50. Imperial Palaces（宫殿建筑）
Usually built on a grand scale, the imperial palaces are closely related to imperial sovereignty（统治权） and were also constructed for the entertainment of rulers.

51. Imperial Palaces
Imperial palaces are where emperors lived and administered their court during their reign. They are the most revered（敬畏的）, luxurious and grandiose（宏伟的） architectural types from ancient China.

52. The Number “Nine”
“Nine” carried a special meaning in ancient China. It was deemed that odd numbers represent yang while even numbers yin. Since nine is the largest odd number under ten, it was regarded an extremely lucky number. So, emperors liked to monopolize（独占） it to symbolize their superiority. Designs related to nine appeared almost on every imperial structure.

54. Architectural Features of imperial palaces:
--The ancient palaces were strictly laid out on central axis.
-- Yellow roof tiles were used.
--The wooden columns of the buildings, as well as the surface of the walls, tend to be red in color.
--The Chinese dragon was heavily used on Imperial
architecture.

55. Traditional Chinese Gardens（园林建筑）
The most distinguishing feature of traditional Chinese gardens is their natural mountain-and-water style. Chinese garden architecture includes both grand imperial gardens and delicate private ones.

56. Altars and Temples （坛庙建筑）
Altars and temples built in ancient China were meant for practice of rites.
Three categories:
—imperial temples and altars（祭坛） for worshiping of Heaven, the earth, the sun, the moon and the imperial ancestors
— commemorative temples for dead people of great virtue
— family temples

57. 天坛的祈年殿是我国古代最高等级的建筑

58. 大成殿 重檐庑殿

59. Religious Structures（宗教建筑）
Taoist Temple Constructions
A Chinese Taoist temple, generally called gong（宫） or guan（观） in Chinese, is the holy hall where Taoists perform their religious ceremonies.

60. Buddhist Temple Constructions
Buddhist Temple Constructions in China include Buddhist temples, monasteries（修道院）, pagodas, Buddhist halls and grottoes（岩洞）, which are called si （佛寺）, ta （佛塔）, dian (佛殿）and shiku （石窟） in Chinese respectively.

61. Islamic Mosques
A mosque （清真寺） is a place of worship for followers of Islam.
An Islamic mosque has a minaret(宣礼塔), from which Muslims are called to pray, and an ablution room(沐浴室)for worshippers to bathe in. In the hall（礼拜殿）there are no idols, but an empty shrine（圣龛）pointing in the direction of Mecca（麦加）. Decorations on mosques are simply the text of the Koran (《古兰经》), patterns of plants or geometric figures.

62. 济南清真北大寺

63. Tombs and Mausoleums（陵墓建筑）
People of all social classes had their tombs carefully built.
Over the centuries, the craft of tomb construction gradually merged with arts like painting, calligraphy and sculpture. It eventually became its own art form.

64. Residential Houses（民居建筑）
Residential houses refer to the house of the common people in different parts of China.

65. Civilian Residential Housing
Since China is a country of diverse natural environments and cultural traditions, its civilian residential housing features diverse styles.
Beijing quadrangles (北京四合院)
Shaanxi cave dwellings (窑洞)
Huizhou residential houses
Hakka castle-like dwellings (客家土楼)
Some Ethnic Houses

66. Courtyard House（院落式民居）

67. Courtyard House（院落式民居）
A courtyard house is a type of house where several buildings are disposed around a central courtyard.

68. Quadrangle
Siheyuan
A siheyuan is a style of Chinese courtyard house. It is a historical type of residence that was commonly found throughout China, most famously in Beijing. The name literally means a courtyard surrounded by four buildings. In English, siheyuan are sometimes referred to as Chinese quadrangles.

69. Questions
1. Why do you think there are no windows or small windows on the outside walls? 2. Do you know why these houses usually face south?

70. Why do you think there are no windows or small windows on the outside walls?
The walls around the house not only give privacy and some protection from burglars.
Inside the walls, one is in a protected environment, where women, for instance, can move about freely, without worries about being observed by strangers. For men, the outer world can be a burden, making the space within the walls something of a sanctuary（庇护所）.

71. Do you know why these houses usually face south?
--These houses usually face south in order to get more sunlight during winter.
--People believe that facing south will bring good feng shui.

72. Beijing siheyuan
According to the owner’s status and the condition of the building base, the quadrangles can be divided into different styles:
single-yard quadrangle siheyuan
two-yard quadrangle siheyuan
three-yard quadrangle siheyuan
four-yard quadrangle siheyuan
five-yard quadrangle siheyuan.

73. Shaanxi cave dwellings (窑洞)
Cave dwellings are common in the northwest Loess Plateau (黄土高原) of China and at the middle and upper reaches of the Yellow River. The natural condition of dry weather, cold winter and limited timber left a room for the development and continuity of cave dwellings. They are warm in winter and cool in summer.

74. 1. Why people live in caves instead of houses?
--Where there is a lack of wood and much poverty, people cannot afford houses.
2. What are the advantages of living in the caves?
--The construction of cave homes requires low technology. These dwellings with thick wall and high raised ceilings, are warm in winter and cool in summer.
--Constructed with simple and economical materials, the dwellings are full of a sense of intimacy and harmony between man and nature.

75. 3. What are the disadvantages of living in the caves?
--Cave humidity is high; Lighting is inadequate; Ventilation is poor; Water seepage. Caves dwellings are often associated with poverty. Drainage must be addressed in a sunken courtyard, unlike courtyards for cliffside homes.

76. Huizhou residential houses
Huizhou residential houses embraced local physical features of the area. They incorporated fengshui concepts and aesthetic trends, with black tiles（瓷瓦）, white walls and decorations placed elegantly on upturned eaves（屋檐）. A garden style was a major feature of these old buildings. All buildings had exquisite wood, stone and brick carvings on the doors and windows.

78. Hakka castle-like dwellings (客家土楼)
The overall building complexes are round or square, and some in the style of large mansions or in the shape of the Eight Trigrams（八卦）. There are usually three to four floors, but the tallest complexes have up to six floors. Including the houses in the yard, such a building usually holds more than 50 families.

79. Interior of a typical round earthen building:
The first floor is always the kitchen. The second floor becomes a storage room for food and furniture. The third floor and above are bedrooms.

80. Earthen Building (土楼)

81. Earthen Building (土楼)
A tulou is a large multi-storey building in southeast Fujian mountainous region for large community living and defense, built with weight bearing rammed（夯实） earth wall and wood frame structure.
Do you know why were the houses built in this way?
--Most Hakkas lived in the mountains. These communal houses made of compacted earth were built to provide protection against bandits(强盗) and wild animals and were almost like small, fortified castles.

82. Stilt House （干栏式民居）

83. Dai bamboo house
Square, two-story bamboo houses have been the traditional dwellings of the Dai people for more than 1,000 years. The upper story is living quarters, supported by 20 wooden poles and are more than two meters above the ground. The open-walled lower story is for raising domestic animals and for storage. The building has an oblique (斜的) roof, shaped as an upside down V, covered with grass or tiles. The upper story of the house is divided into two parts: inner bedrooms and an outer living room. The upper story has a corridor and a balcony.

85. Stone chamber (碉舫 diaofang)
The stone chamber is the most popular dwelling in Tibet and some areas of Inner Mongolia. Built mostly of stone and earth, they look like diaolou (blockhouse), hence the name of diaofang. The first floor is often used for livestock and poultry, and the second contains bedrooms, living rooms, kitchens and storehouses. Some have a third floor as a family sutra（佛经）
hall and a balcony.

86. Flat-roof House （碉房） House E
These houses are found mainly in Tibet, Xinjiang
and Yunnan. They are usually three to four storeys tall,
each occupied by one single household. The external walls
are made of stone and are flat and square. The roofs are
flat. The houses blend in with the contours of the mountain.
In a typical four- storey house, the lowest storey is for
keeping livestock; the second storey is where people cook
and store food and hay, the third storey consists of a living
room, bedroom and mini storeroom, and the top storey
serves as a drying deck and worship hall which is beautifully
decorated.

87. 1. What is/are the purpose(s) of flat roofs?
--To receive more sunlight;
--To provide space for drying food
2.Why are multi-storey houses built in these areas?
--There is very little flat land, so people build multi-storey houses to create more living space.
3.Which part of the house is the most important?
--The worship hall.
4.Why is it so important to the Tibetans?
--They are devout Buddhists.

88. Mongolian yurts (蒙古包)
Mongolian yurts are felt tents. Wooden wattles are fastened with leather thongs and studs to form a fence-like structure. Each part of the yurt is quite convenient to disassemble and carry.

89. House B
Yurt （蒙古包）

90. 1. Advantage?
--People need to set up and dismantle their houses from time to time. Because they need to move from place to place in search of new grassland. So the yurt is portable and suitable for nomadic life.
2. What is the purpose of letting the round hole on the roof open at day time and closed at night?
--It is let open during the day for ventilation and closed at night to keep the tent warm.
3. Why is leather used to build the tent?
--There is a lack of building materials in the grassland. Leather is the most easily available and most suitable for the conditions.

91. Chinese Bridges
China has inherited innumerable bridges from her past. There are, it is said, 4 million bridges if one counts the stone arch bridges alone. In the southern regions of rivers and lakes, the landscape is dotted with bridges of various sizes and descriptions.

92. The Stone Arch Bridge (石拱桥)
The first stone arch bridge named Lurenqiao （路人桥）(Wayfarers’ Bridge) was built in the year of 282, near the ancient Luoyang Palace.

93. Chinese Bridges
China has inherited innumerable bridges from her past. There are, it is said, 4 million bridges if one counts the stone arch bridges alone. In the southern regions of rivers and lakes, the landscape is dotted with bridges of various sizes and descriptions.

94. Anji Bridge（安济桥）
Anji Bridge is the most famous stone arch bridge in China. It spans the Jiaohe River in Zhaoxian County，Hebei Province, and is better known as Zhaozhou Bridge after the ancient name of the county. Built at the end of the sixth centry, by the mason (石匠) Li Chun, Zhaozhou Bridge is still being used today, making it one of the bridges with the longest service life in the world today.

96. Lugouqiao（卢沟桥）
On wide rivers and lakes, multiple-arch bridges were erected in stone. One of them is Lugouqiao or Marco Polo Bridge. Built in the years from 1189 to 1192 in the southern vicinity（近处） of Beijing, it is 265 metres long and comprises 11 arches with spans ranging from 16 to 20 metres. What makes the bridge famous is the stone lions engraved on the balustrades (扶栏) on both sides. The 485 stone lions are lively and exquisite with different expressions and postures.

98. The Zigzag Bridge (曲桥)
As a landscaping structure, the zigzag bridge is found in some gardens or suburban parks. It is intended to give an interesting scenic feature on lakes and ponds.

99. Such a bridge may have three, five or more zigzags
Such a bridge may have three, five or more zigzags. The Nine-Bend Bridge in Yuyuan Garden of Shanghai’s old town is a typical example. Crossing 30 metres of the lake, the bridge winds more than 100 metres because of its nine twists and turns.

100. The Pavilion Bridge (亭桥)
A component part of the art of landscape gardening, the pavilion bridge is often built over the surface of a quiet lake, forming a small scenic area and providing sightseers with a place of rest, sheltered from the sun and rain.

101. Five-Pavilion Bridge
The in Yangzhou City, Jiangsu Province, is a fine example of this style. Built in 1757, resembling a belt worn on the narrow waist of Slender West Lake , it has five pavilions. One pavilion is higher than the other four, two on each side in perfect symmetry. The middle pavilion is the only double-eaved structure. All pavilions have their four corners upturned, with rows of tiles under a crown roof. The pavilions are joined by short covered corridors, which have yellow-glazed roof tiles and green curving ridge tiles, creating a striking color contrast.

103. Chengyang Bridge(城阳风雨桥)
Another well-known pavilion bridge, built in 1916, is Chengyang Bridge, also known as Wind-and-Rain Bridge, on the Linxi River in the Dong Autonomous County of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Its wooden body, 70 metres long by 10 metres wide, rests on piers（支墩） built entirely of large stone blocks. Standing above are five pagoda-like pavilions connected by a long covered corridor forming a covered bridge.

105. Typical Chinese Structures and Ornaments
There is a variety of typical Chinese structures and ornaments and each exemplifies China’s rich architectural heritage.

106. Chinese Stone Lions
In China, the lion is regarded as the king of animals and ruler of the forest, and so it has long been used as a symbol of power and grandeur. Also, it is believed that a lion ornament can offer protection from evil spirits.

107. In front of the gates of traditional palace halls, old government offices, mansions, temples and other houses of style, a pair of stone lions are often seen standing guards. Carved from stone (some may be gilded（镀金） or cast in iron or bronze), the male is on the left, his right paw resting on a ball, and the lioness on the right, her left paw fondling a cub . The ball symbolizes the unity of the empire, and the cub with the lioness represents thriving offspring.

109. Huabiao (华表)
Huabiao are paired ceremonial columns erected in front of a palace or tomb, usually carved with dragon and phoenix patterns, with a transverse-engraved stone slab on its top. It can be up to 20 meters in height and a meter or so in diameter. A typical huabiao has a round or octagonal（八角形的） base.

111. Pavilions
A common sight in the country is the Chinese pavilion, which is built of wood, stone or bamboo and the floor plan design may adopt a square, triangular, hexagonal（六边形的）, octagonal（八边形的）, five-petal（向） flower or fan shape. All pavilions have columns to support the roof, but no walls. In parks or at scenic spots, pavilions are built either on slopes to command panoramic (全景的) views or by the lakeside to create intriguing (有魅力的) images in the water.

113. Pagodas
Chinese pagodas come in various sizes and shapes. Some resemble towers, others pavilions and still others are similar to pyramids. Some stand alone, and others have been built in clusters.

115. Tower-style pagodas (楼阁塔)
Tower-style pagodas are multi-story towers with protruding upturned eaves. The oldest and tallest of this type is the magnificent Ying County Wooden Pagoda (应县木塔) in Shanxi Province. Built in 1056, it is a 67.1-meter-high octagonal structure of five stories.

116. Multi-eaved pagodas (密檐式塔) take their names from the many tiers of closely set eaves at the top of the structures. Most pagodas of this sort are built of bricks and stones. They are without doors or windows but have holes to let in light. The earliest example is at Songyue Temple on Mount Songshan in Henan Province. Built in 520, it stands 40 meters high and has 12 sides capped by 15 tiers of eaves.

117. Pavilion or one-story pagodas were used as tombs for abbots and other high-ranking monks. The earliest of these still existing is the 1,400-year-old Simen Pagoda at Shentong Temple in Shangdong Province. It is square, with a single roof and one door on each side.

118. Lamaist pagodas (喇嘛塔) are similar to Indian stupa ([佛教]舍利塔)
Lamaist pagodas (喇嘛塔) are similar to Indian stupa ([佛教]舍利塔). The pagodas are dome-shaped structures set on large pyramidal platforms. One famous example is the White Pagoda in Beihai Park in Beijing.

119. Paifang (牌坊)
Paifang, also called pailou, is an archway usually made from fine wood or stone, and painted or decorated with glazed tiles. Calligraphers are usually requested to write moral inscriptions to be carved into the middle beam. These structures usually stand in downtown areas, or at the entrances of mausoleums, temples, bridges and parks.