Language Instruction for Students with Disabilities Fourth Edition

Language Instruction for Students with Disabilities Fourth Edition
© Polloway, E. A., Miller, L., & Smith, T. E. C. (2012). Language instruction for students with disabilities (4th ed.). Denver, CO: Love. Instructors who adopt this book may use the Power Points to teach your course without prior permission. © Love Publishing: Lynda Miller

Introduction to Speech, Language, and Communication
Chapter 1 Introduction to Speech, Language, and Communication

Introduction to Language, Speech, and Communication
Importance of communication skills for employability Communication skills needed in school and for social interaction with peers

What Is Communication? Interchange of ideas, feelings, thoughts, experiences, and information Communicating through language Speech—the oral sounds of the language code

How Is Literacy Related to Communication?
Literacy: the set of competencies children develop with both oral and printed language (including electronic forms) Speaking Reading Writing

Four Models of Language
Rationalism Empiricism Nature–nurture continuum Social-interactionist model

Language Development from Infancy through Adolescence
The Building Blocks of Language Form Content Use Narrative Nonverbal

The Building Blocks of Language
Form: the structures of language Content: how meaning is derived Use: the social functions of language Narrative: how conversations and stories are structured Nonverbal communication: meaning carried outside spoken and/or written language forms

Language Form Phonology 44 phonemes in English
Vowels: sounds produced with an open vocal tract Consonants: sounds produced through place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing

Language Form, continued
Morphology: rules governing how phonemes are combined into syllables and words to convey meaning Two kinds of morphemes: free and bound

Language Form, Continued
Syntax: the study of linguistic conventions for generating meaningful phrases and sentences Examples: word order, use of active or passive voice, arrangement of words in a phrase and/or sentence

Language Content Language content: the meaning level of language
Also called semantics How humans attribute meaning (includes study of vocabulary development in children)

Language Use Language use: the conventions governing how language is used in various social contexts Rules a culture uses for what people say, to whom, how, and under which circumstances Often called pragmatics: analysis of the functions of language, particularly those related to social contexts Significance of violations of the rules

Narrative Ability Narrative: a sequence of events tied together in a story Major precursor to learning to read and write Story grammar: character(s), setting, and episodes Cultural variations: topic centered or topic associated

Nonverbal Language Paralinguistics Proxemics Kinesics Chronemics

Chapter 2 Language Development from Infancy through Adolescence

Five stages of language development –prelinguistic –emerging language –developing language –language for learning (L4L) –adolescent language Mean length of utterance is used as a measure of language development up to age 5

Communication in the Prelinguistic Period
“Motherese” and language during infancy Joint attention and joint referencing Mutual attending Babbling Emergence of communicative intentions

Emerging Language Brown’s Stage I, MLU between 1.0 and 2.0
Semantics and increasing vocabulary Syntax: from one-word utterances to two-word phrases Noun phrases and verb phrases Development of the interrogative and negative forms

Phonology Variability in the development of phonological abilities: phonetically consistent forms First phonemes to emerge Simplification of adult forms of phonology: phonological processes

Pragmatics (Language Use)
Doubling of children’s attempts to communicate Increased range and number of intentions children express Discourse functions: referrals to previous speech acts Beginning awareness of the need for presuppositions Increased ability in turntaking

Developing Language Between ages 27 months and 46 months in typically developing children (Brown’s Stage II through V, MLU of 2.0 to 4.5) Semantics: exponential vocabulary development –nouns, verbs, prepositions, temporal words, adjectives, and pronouns –emergence of inflections to change word meanings

Semantics, continued –regular and irregular verb forms –contractions –beginnings of pronoun acquisition

Syntax • From two-word utterances to sentences containing adjectives, prepositional phrases, and subordinate clauses –development of interrogatives and negatives –increasing complexity of sentence forms through embedding (1) embedding phrases within sentences (2) embedding clauses within clauses

Syntax, continued Compound and complex sentences
Object complement clauses, wh-question clauses, and relative clauses

Morphology Plural marker: one of the earliest morphemes children use regularly Overgeneralization of morphemic rules Learning exceptions to morphemic rules

Phonology Children acquire most of the phonological system during this stage Many children use later developing phonemes incorrectly well into the next stage

Pragmatics Turntaking and topic maintenance improve
Increased ability with conversational repair Moving from a preponderance of direct requests to an increased use of indirect requests

Figurative Language Emerging understanding that language exists on several levels Increased understanding of synonyms and homonyms Beginning understanding and use of metaphoric language Idioms Humor

Narrative Development
Protonarratives and heaps give way to primitive narratives Four types of narratives children use in this stage: Recounting Eventcasts Accounts Fictionalized narratives

Language for Learning Stage (L4L)
Extends from age 5 through 10 or 11 years Language characteristics and knowledge of children from homes in which literacy practices are common

Relationship between Oral Language and Print
Recency of written language forms Advantages of being read aloud to before learning to read Decoding and phonological awareness

Semantic Development Characteristics of vocabulary development in this stage Addition of new words Using words they already know in new ways Choosing words for getting just the right meaning Chunking: classifying words into categories and hierarchical subcategories

Semantic Development, continued
Elaborated definitions of words Differentiation of nouns into subcategories Appearance of adverbs Fine tuning the pronouns

Figurative Language Nonliteral use of language:
Metaphor Simile Idiom Proverbs, adages, maxims Development of humor in this stage

Syntactic Development
Expanding noun and verb phrases Passive sentences: reversible and nonreversible Exceptions to the rules Principle of minimal distance and exceptions/violations

Syntactic Development, continued
Embedding Infinitive phrases Object complements Relative clauses that modify noun phrases in the object position (but not in the subject position) Decreasing difficulty with confusing embeddings

Syntactic Development, continued
Conjoining Learning exceptions to logical (cause–effect) order

Morphological Development
Three significant morphological advances: producing Gerunds Agentive forms Adverb forms

Pragmatic Development
Moving toward the literate end of the oral–literate continuum Discourse: different ways to talk, act, and write in different circumstances Discourse genres Conversational competence Increased ability to sustain topics over time Improved skill in responding to clarifications for repair

Pragmatic Development, continued
Proficiency in understanding and using indirect requests The oral-to-literate shift: shifting from using primarily oral language to using language that is primarily literate Characteristics of literate language Advantages to children from homes that use literate language

Pragmatic Development, continued
Six narrative genres children are likely to encounter Structured play Wordless books Comic books Books on video/DVD/online Folk tales Trade books

Narrative Development
Shift in narrative abilities during this stage Stories containing a basic episode give way to stories that contain complete episodes Basic episode: initiating event, attempt, consequence Complete episode: basic episode plus internal response, plan, and reaction or ending By age 7, most children produce stories with a plot that may or may not be developed

Narrative Development, continued
After age 8, children’s stories begin to resemble adults’ stories: Clear plot line Problem is obvious Enough (not too much) information/detail Time and place described in enough detail Character’s actions and motivations make sense

Learning New Discourse Forms
Classroom Discourse Often implicit and not verbalized by the teacher Initiation-Response-Evaluation (IRE) format Expository Discourse Highly decontextualized language Structures are different from story grammar Nested organizational schemes may be more difficult for students until late in this stage

Learning New Discourse Forms, continued
Argumentative/persuasive discourse More abstract and complicated structure than expository structures Some students in this stage develop proficiency with oral forms but few are able to produce written argumentative/persuasive discourse

The Metas Metalinguistic Metapragmatic Metacognitive

Metalinguistic ability
Most children develop some proficiency with the various metalinguistic forms; some are considerably older Consequences for learning to read Difficulties with phonological awareness

Metapragmatic ability
Metapragmatic strategies Decoding classroom discourse

Metacognitive ability
Comprehension monitoring Organizational and learning strategies

Writing Graphophoneme awareness
Importance of oral language development and emerging reading skills

Adolescent Language/ Advanced Language
Primary developments in this stage Social interactions with peers Necessity of understanding and producing literate language forms Using language to develop critical thinking skills

Semantics Vocabulary Enlarging number and types of words
Elaborating vocabulary that reflects literate language forms Further expanding the meanings of already known words Learning Aristotelian definitions

Pragmatics Most prominent developments are: Figurative language
increased abilities with figurative language forms Understanding and producing diverse discourse types Figurative language Improved comprehension of metaphor, similes, and idioms Playing with language for humorous effects

Pragmatics, continued The importance of slang for teenagers
Increased emphasis on understanding and using all the discourses presented by school Narrative Expository Argumentative Persuasive

The Metas Increased demand for metacognitive skills Emergence of:
Analogic/inductive reasoning Syllogistic/deductive reasoning Comprehension monitoring during adolescence Organizational strategies for learning

The Metas, continued Metapragmatic requirements necessary for negotiating school and peers Writing: purpose of writing; audience who will be reading the writing; choosing the appropriate discourse genre Social interactions: which discourse types to use when and with whom

The Metas, continued Metalinguistic development
Talking about language and its uses, both oral and written Reflecting on language form, content, and discourse type in order to write The emergence of an understanding of the aesthetic aspects of language Humor

Writing Reading and writing as reciprocal processes
Increased proficiency with writing mechanics and different literary styles Three major processes of writing in adolescence Planning Sentence generation Revision

Cultural Diversity and Language Differences
Chapter 3 Cultural Diversity and Language Differences

Cultural Diversity and Language Differences
Language varies across cultures Diversity in society More cultural diversity in the U.S. today than in previous years One fourth of the U.S. population consists of minority groups Population projections indicate a continued increase in diversity in the U.S.

Language Characteristics Across Cultures in the U.S.
Immigrants to the U.S. speak a variety of languages other than English As of 2007, one fifth of students in schools in the U.S. were immigrants and likely to speak a language other than English

Myths Surrounding Students from Diverse Backgrounds
A student’s ethnic background implies that s/he has the same needs and intellectual abilities of all other students from the same ethnic background Speaking “broken” English or a dialect indicates intellectual deficiency All “minority” students are disadvantaged, lazy, and on welfare

Myths Surrounding Students from Diverse Backgrounds, continued
All students from Asian-American families are academically gifted All students from minority families are inferior What teachers can do in the classroom: Have reading materials addressing cultural diversity Enlist advocacy groups to obtain information about cultural diversity Seek out families of students from diverse backgrounds Find professional seminars that focus on diversity Learn about diversity from reading materials aimed at children

Disproportionality in Special Education
What is disproportionality? Overrepresentation Underrepresentation Primary cause of disproportionality = unfair (i.e., biased) assessment

Policies and Practices Affecting Education for Minority Students
Institutional racism Reduced (or enhanced) expectations Mismatch between curriculum and student needs Using inappropriate pedagogy Limited input from teachers and from students and their families

Three Cultural Models for Educating Minority Students
Background regarding linguistic diversity in the U.S. Eight linguistic regions in the U.S. Substantial linguistic variation: language disorder, cultural mismatch, or language difference?

The Cultural Deficit Position
Assumptions Language of minorities constitutes a deficient code Students not speaking standard English have an automatic language deficiency Minorities are culturally deprived, which indicates educational limitations Implications of using elaborated or restricted codes of language

The Cultural Mismatch Model
Primary assumption: there is a mismatch between the expectations of the majority culture and the student’s culture Educational implication: closing that gap, i.e., helping the student achieve majority cultural values, prepares the student for success in the majority culture

The Culturally Different Model
Primary assumption is the same as the cultural mismatch model: there are differences between individuals from different cultures, each of which has its own strengths and weaknesses In this model, language systems may be different but are not necessarily deficient Ebonics as an example

The Culturally Different Model, continued
Importance of using the term nonstandard instead of substandard Challenges facing students who do not speak “proper” (i.e., standard) English

What Teachers Can Do Characteristics of culturally responsive teachers
Self-reflection questions teachers can use to understand their own and others’ cultural beliefs, values, and expectations

Fair Assessment The challenge of finding fair, accurate assessment instruments and procedures Content bias Construct bias IDEA requirements for reducing discrimination in assessment

Four Instructional Approaches
English as a Second Language Approach English is the language of instruction Student’s native language not addressed directly Advantages and disadvantages Bilingual Education Approach Instruction uses both English and the student’s native language

Four Instructional Approaches, continued
Submersion Programs No bilingual programs available Students are expected to develop the majority-culture language Student’s native language is not used

Four Instructional Approaches, continued
Immersion Programs Students grouped with others who speak the same primary language Teachers are fluent in both English and the students’ native language No formal instruction in English Advantages and disadvantages

Code Switching and Code Mixing
Code switching: proficient in both languages, the individual switches from one to the other deliberately and consciously Code mixing: the individual indiscriminately mixes the two languages

Bilingual Education Materials
Few Spanish-language materials are available Steps to use in selecting appropriate materials for students from diverse backgrounds

Guidelines and Teaching Strategies
Twelve specific suggestions for teachers to meet the special classroom needs of students with language differences

Families of Culturally Diverse Students
Factors influencing family participation in the student’s education Importance of school–home communication

Language Assessment and Instruction for Preschool Children
Chapter 4 Language Assessment and Instruction for Preschool Children

Language Assessment and Instruction for Preschool Children
For preschoolers, assessment is used to determine the child’s developmental characteristics The goal of instruction and intervention is to assist the student in moving to the next developmental stage Legislative background

Developmental Considerations for Preschool Children with Disabilities
How severely are communication and language affected developmentally? Focus of assessment for preschoolers with severe impairments Goal of assessment for preschoolers with moderately compromised communication and language Purpose of assessment for preschoolers with mild impairments

Four Types of Assessment
Standardized tests Nonstandardized approaches Interviews with parents and caregivers Observations of the child’s play and routines in familiar environments

Standardized Testing Standardized instruments are norm referenced
Characteristics of norm-referenced instruments Strengths and weaknesses of standardized instruments

Nonstandardized Approaches
Criterion-referenced procedures Developmental scales Dynamic assessment

Interviews with Parents and Caregivers
Constructing one’s own interview formats Using existing developmental scales and behavior checklists Using a combination of the two Advantages and disadvantages of using interviews

Observation of Children’s Play and Routines in Familiar Environments
Less intrusive for the child Likely to yield more representative communication and language abilities than a standardized instrument Advantages of using interviews to assess a child’s communication and language abilities

Assessment of Preschool Children
Purpose of assessment for children in the Prelinguistic period of language development Emerging language stage Developing language stage

Standardized and Nonstandardized Testing
Tools for Prelinguistic Language Tools for Emerging Language Tools for Developing Language

Interviews with Parents and Caregivers
Designing the interview format, location, and process to reflect the purposes of assessment for each stage of communication and language development Available instruments Designing one’s own interview

Observations of Children’s Play and Routines in Natural Environments
Passive observation Interactive observation and dynamic assessment Constructing a worksheet or checklist to organize observations

Communication and Language Instruction for Preschoolers
Types of guidelines and standards for designing instruction The importance of literacy development Metalinguistic awareness in preschool children Language-learning disabilities and dyslexia Long-term goals of language instruction for preschool children

Language Instruction for Preschool Children: Prelinguistic Stage
Specific instructional goals Four effective interactive behaviors that foster communication Turntaking and imitation Joint attention Anticipatory sets Communicative intentions Fostering language through reading books aloud

Language Instruction for Preschool Children: Emerging Language Stage
Factors that predict the need for language intervention and instruction The role of symbolic play in developing language Semantic development: relational and substantive words Syntactic development Phonology Pragmatic skills

Language Instruction: Emerging Language, continued
Communicative intentions and discourse functions Requests for information Acknowledgments Answers Presuppositions and turntaking: possible instructional scenarios

Language Instruction for Preschool Children: Developing Language Stage
Focus on language abilities underlying success in school Instructional products (goals), processes (methods), and contexts (settings) Instructional goals–linking to state learning standards Long-term goals and benchmarks (short-term objectives) Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and modifiability

Language Instruction: Developing Language Stage, continued
Example showing how to use the ZPD to select short-term objectives Instructional methods Teacher directed Child centered Combinations of both of the above Instructional settings Collaborating with a Speech-Language Pathologist (SLP) Consulting with an SLP Language-based classroom

Children with Severely Compromised Speech
Alternative and augmentative communication modalities (AAC) Primary goal = engaging in interactive communicaion Guidelines for selecting AAC systems/devices Symbol systems AAC devices

Language Assessment and Instruction for School-Age Children
Chapter 5 Language Assessment and Instruction for School-Age Children

Language Assessment and Instruction for School-Age Children
Language abilities ranging from prelinguistic and the language for learning (L4L) stages Two levels of assessment and instruction Basic communication and language skills School-related oral language skills and emerging literacy

Assessment Goals, Procedures, and Instruments
Four primary assessment questions: level of development in Semantics, syntax, phonology, and pragmatics Narrative discourse Nonnarrative discourse Metalinguistic ability Assessing developmental abilities Semantics

Assessment Goals, Procedures, and Instruments, continued
Syntax and morphology Phonology Pragmatics Figurative language Narrative language Metalinguistic awareness Standardized measures

Assessment Goals, Procedures, and Instruments, continued
Nonstandardized measures Observational checklists Criterion-referenced measures and behavioral observations

Assessing Language Development, continued
Phonology Phonological awareness and phonological processing Rapid automatic naming (RAN) Semantics Receptive and expressive vocabulary differences Instructional and textbook vocabulary Word retrieval and/or word finding Noun differentiation–categorization

Assessing Language Development, continued
Syntax and morphology Understanding and use of specific syntactic and morphological structures Using dynamic assessment and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) for both assessment and instruction Mediated teaching

Assessing Narrative Discourse
Appleby’s stage model Heap stories Sequence stories Primitive narratives Chain narratives True narratives Miller et al.’s component model Story components Setting: time and place

Assessing Narrative Discourse, continued
Character information Temporal order Causal information Story ideas and language Complexity of ideas Complexity of vocabulary Knowledge of dialogue Creativity

Assessing Narrative Discourse, continued
Episode elements and structure Six episode elements Development of children’s episode structure

Assessing Nonnarrative Discourse Genres
Classroom discourse The hidden curriculum Decontextualized nature of classroom discourse Other types of nonnarrative discourse encountered by children entering school Descriptive Poetry Expository Argumentative/persuasive

Assessing the Metas Examples of assessing: Metalinguistic ability
Metapragmatic ability Metacognitive ability

Pragmatics How difficulties with metapragmatic skills manifests in the social–interactive rules governing the various discourse genres typical of school Difficulties students with LLD may exhibit

Language Instruction for School-Age Students
Linking language instruction to state learning standards via the IEP How Section 504 can help students with language disabilities

Language Goals Two primary goals for language instruction during the language for learning (L4L) period Developing facility with the language structures, forms, and functions typical of the language in this developmental stage Making the shift from oral to literate forms of language

Language Instruction Principles guiding language instruction in this stage of development: Integrating oral and written language Language targets can include components of both oral and written language Example for a second-grade student with difficulties in phonological awareness and pragmatic abilities Two examples of how to use narrative language as a means of integrating oral and written language

Language Instruction, continued
Focus on the metas Engaging students on both the concrete and abstract levels Using rehearsal of a performance of a piece of literature to emphasize different discourse types, pragmatic abilities, and talking about talking, language, and thinking Narrative discourse Dynamic assessment and mediated teaching Using a variety of narrative genres

Nonnarrative (expository) discourses Characteristics of nonnarrative discourse Graphical schemas as visual organizers Key words Mathematics discourse Teacher instruction Reading mathematical symbols Story problems Self-talk strategies

Methods for Language Instruction
Recap of methods from Chapter 4: continuum from teacher directed to student directed Scaffolding Example of mediated teaching as a method for utilizing scaffolding Wallach’s narrative development approach Westby’s book report sequence Whole language as a method of language instruction

Settings for Language Instruction
Classroom settings Collaborating or consulting with the speech-language clinician (SLP) Language-based classrooms

Web-Based Instruction
Teacher-hosted web pages Teacher- and state-sponsored networks Online technologies supporting instruction Case Western Reserve University’s website tutorial for teachers Internet4Classroom’s web design resources for teachers

Web-Based Instruction, continued
Websites offering specific language instruction materials LD Online website resources

School-Age Children with Severe Impairments
Primary goal of language instruction Independence in daily living and vocational settings Functional repertoire of communication and language skills Contexts for language instruction Published programs for teaching functional language AAC systems and devices

Language Assessment and Instruction for Adolescents
Chapter 6 Language Assessment and Instruction for Adolescents

Language Assessment and Instruction for Adolescents
Assessment goals, procedures, and instruments Social discourse with peers and in the classroom Literate language abilities Skill with the metas Standardized measures Oral language Written language

Nonstandardized Assessment
Semantics A rubric for evaluating the student’s knowledge of the literate lexicon Special verb classes Factitives Nonfactitives Word relationships and etymologies Evaluating words according to context of use Figurative language

Nonstandardized Assessment, continued
Syntax and morphology Assessing through an oral narrative sample Three aspects of oral and written syntax T-unit length Clause density (subordination index) High-level, low-frequency structures characteristic of an advanced literate style

Assessing Pragmatics Conversational competence
Larson and McKinley’s assessment procedure Two procedures for assessing negotiation abilities Role playing Hypothetical situations Nelson and Rosenbaum’s procedure for assessing slang vernacular

Assessing Pragmatics, continued
Discourse genres Assessing competence with classroom discourse Observational checklist Student self-rating Assessing listening skills Literal level Critical (metalistening) level Drawing inferences

Assessing Pragmatics, continued
Retelling complete and complicated narratives Summarizing narratives through the use of cohesive markers Cohesive devices used by good writers Assessing expository abilities, both oral and printed Assessing the process of writing as well as the product A model for assessing written products Using rubrics to evaluate expository writing Portfolio assessment

Assessing The Meta Level
Using dynamic assessment to assess metalinguistic skills A set of questions to assess students’ awareness of classroom rules (metapragmatic aiblity) Using Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences to assess metacognitive abilities

Language Instruction Purposes of language instruction
Prerequisites for students’ being successful with compensatory learning strategies

Semantics Focus on the literate lexicon Ellis’s five elaboration techniques used to teach vocabulary The Family Learning Association’s six-step vocabulary development program Denver Public School’s Literacy Support Team Metalinguistic approaches to semantics instruction

Semantics Instruction, continued
Web resources for teaching figurative language

Syntax and Morphology Instruction
Syntactic and morphological complexity of literate language Using reading (or reading aloud) as a means to teach syntax and morphology Self-cueing and editing others’ work

Pragmatics Instruction
Conversational competence Teaching oral persuasion Teaching conversational discourse Peer modeling Helping students with classroom discourse Models of scaffolding Graphic organizers Role playing

Pragmatics Instruction, continued
Narrative discourse Reading good stories Scrambling stories for students to reassemble Using story frames Online resources Literature-based rehearsal and performance Explicit instruction about story grammars Story grammar checklists Including cohesive markers

Expository discourse Teaching the macrostructures of different expository types Teaching students how to understand persuasive discourse functions Teaching students to write expository discourse Rubrics Online resources

Techniques for students with LLD Three phases of writing expository text The planning stage–generating ideas Generating and organizing sentences into coherent wholes Editing their work

Instruction for the Metas
Teaching comprehension monitoring Teaching metacognitive skills

Secondary Students with Severe Impairments
Teaching functional communication and language skills Individualized Transition Plans Teaching conversational skills Teaching the communication skills needed for self-advocacy Helping students learn the communication and language skills needed outside school Teaching skills needed in independent living contexts

Secondary Students with Severe Impairments, continued
Alternative and Augmentative Communication (AAC) Evaluating the communicative appropriateness and effectiveness of the AAC systems used by students in a secondary school environment Guidelines for assessing AAC systems needed for a variety of different communicative situations Teacher resources

Reading Concepts and Assessment
Chapter 7 Reading Concepts and Assessment

Reading Concepts and Assessment
The increasing achievement gap between students in general and students with disabilities (the Matthew effect) Challenges in learning to read successfully Origins of reading problems

Development of Reading
Early reading Three primary concepts guiding reading instruction Phonemic awareness Understanding the link between speech sounds and printed words (alphabetic understanding) Automaticity with the phonological/alphabetic code Key early reading skills The role of phonological and phonemic awareness

Initial Reading Skills
Instruction for early reading skills, which are prerequisite for initial reading instruction Sight vocabulary Word analysis skills Phonetic analysis

Acquiring Broad Reading Skills
Automatic decoding: rapid reading and the acquisition of a broader base of skills Development of fluency in reading Skill in the structural analysis of word forms Contextual analysis: the bridge between word recognition and comprehension

Advanced Reading Students shift from learning to read to reading to learn Characteristics of reading at this stage Focus on comprehension Variables affecting comprehension Student background, experiences, skills, motivation The content to be read The reading purpose

Reading Comprehension, continued
Three types of comprehension Text explicit Text implicit Script implicit Specific comprehension skills for reading development

Refined Contextual Reading and Life Applications
Reading independently Skills of students at this stage

Assessment of Reading Using assessment to guide instruction
Formal tests to obtain quantitative information Advantages and limitations of formal tests Survey and diagnostic tests Commonly used diagnostic tests

Informal Assessment Applying the results of informal assessment to reading instruction Advantages of informal assessment Informal reading inventories Curriculum-based assessment

Using Assessment Data Using assessment data to
Identify a reader’s specific problems Hypothesize reasons for the problems Derive implications that guide instruction Summarizing informal diagnostic data

Selected Teaching Strategies
Direct instruction of critical skills for the different stages of reading development Learning stages Acquisition learning Proficiency learning Generalization learning Specific recommendations for teachers to provide effective instructional programs

Selected Teaching Strategies, continued
Provide incentives Foster cooperation Focus on using reading to teach reading Shift from oral to silent reading Allow sufficient time Group students effectively Use scaffolding Continue instruction at the secondary level Promote home–school cooperation

Chapter 8 Reading Instruction

Reading Instruction Bottom-up (decoding) and top-down (holistic) approaches Phonemic awareness Rationale for teaching phonemic awareness General recommendations for teaching phonological awareness Four elements of word recognition and analysis

Word Recognition Sight word identification Automaticity
Strategies for promoting recognition and recall of sight words Using word banks Fernald’s multisensory method The Edmark program Helping students build a functional reading vocabulary

Word Recognition, continued
Phonetic analysis Importance of phonics instruction Balancing phonics instruction with other instructional approaches Teaching phonics skills Analytic phonics Synthetic phonics Teaching consonants first, then vowels

Structural analysis Morphemic analysis Syllabication Teaching compound words Teaching affixes Contractions Contextual analysis Provides semantic and syntactic cues to help identify words The cloze procedure

Combining word recognition strategies Steps to follow in teaching students to combine word recognition strategies DISSECT

Vocabulary Importance of developing a strong vocabulary
Approaches to enhancing vocabulary development

Fluency Definition of fluency Repeated readings
Steps in using multiple oral reading approach Cautions in using repeated readings to promote reading achievement

Comprehension Definition Specific levels of comprehension
The eight kinds of comprehension instruction most likely to be effective and promising Holistic programs Key concepts Specific activities The language experience approach (LEA)

Comprehension, continued
Teacher-directed questioning strategies Directed reading/thinking activity (DRTA) Student-directed strategies Why students need strategies to understand expository text Comprehension monitoring (self-questioning) Importance of self-questioning in comprehension Features characteristic of comprehension monitoring The Reads-It approach

Comprehension, continued
Other student-directed strategies RAP SQ3R Collaborative reading Graphic organizers The value of graphic organizers Semantic mapping

Students with Significant Disabilities
Specific considerations for teaching reading to students with significant disabilities

Commercial Reading Programs
Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program for Reading, Spelling, and Speech Phonological Awareness Training for Reading Edmark Reading Program Gillingham-Stillman Remedial Reading Manual Reading Mastery Program SRS Corrective Reading Program Basal Readers

Handwriting Assessment and Instruction
Chapter 9 Handwriting Assessment and Instruction

Handwriting Assessment and Instruction
Definition, history, and importance of handwriting Trends in handwriting Effect of technological advances Emphasis on the process of writing Renewed attention to handwriting instruction Teaching handwriting skills in isolation or context

The Nature of Handwriting
The complexity of the mechanics of handwriting Perceptual–motor skills required for handwriting Handwriting development in children Continuous curvy lines Series of circles or straight lines or both

Handwriting Development, continued
Five levels of early handwriting development

Sequence of Skills From prewriting to skilled written expression
The developmental sequence of handwriting skills Patterns of development Basic prewriting skills Proper posture Proper pencil grip How to recognize and form uppercase and lowercase manuscript letters

Sequence of Skills, continued
Refining of manuscript writing and beginnings of the forming of some cursive letters Cursive writing Written expression Sample handwriting at different grade levels

Assessment of Handwriting
Common assessment methods: analysis of errors in Letter formation Spacing Slant Line quality Letter size and alignment Writing rate

Handwriting Assessment, continued
Formal assessment Limited number of formal assessment instruments specifically designed to assess handwriting skills Some general achievement tests include subtests that measure handwriting skills Limitations of handwriting scales Small sample sizes Inadequate or missing information about reliability

Lack of differentiating between male and female handwriting Specific scales Informal assessments Student work developed in natural settings, especially the classroom A hierarchy of handwriting skills Most common forms of illegibilities Elements of legibility

Examples of informal evaluation tools

Remediating and Teaching Handwriting Skills
Use of commercial teaching programs Some popular programs Scant evidence supporting any particular one Some instructional principles for teaching handwriting

Handwriting and the Whole Language Curriculum
Incorporation of handwriting in the whole language curriculum Decline of handwriting instruction tied to the decline in the use of the whole language approach

Manuscript versus Cursive Writing
No one best method for teaching students to write Manuscript generally taught first History Advantages of teaching manuscript first Advantages of teaching cursive first

Alternatives to Manuscript and Cursive
D’Nealian Handwriting Program Mixed Script Approach Slanted Approach Typing/Keyboarding

Instructional Activities
Readiness skills Primary objectives Developing handedness Developing visual–motor skills Prerequisite skills for beginning formal handwriting instruction Activities

Instructional Activities, continued
Beginning to write Pencil grip Posture Activities for integrating visual motor skills into prerequisite writing skills Questions and supports for handwriting development

Manuscript writing Letters to focus on in initial instruction Steps and guidelines for students to follow Cursive writing Grouping letters into shape categories Practice in penmanship

Handwriting programs Common characteristics of effective programs Guidelines to follow regardless of program Guidelines for parents to follow in encouraging handwriting practice at home Remedial programs Individualizing based on strengths and weaknesses Guidelines to follow for students with disabilities

Left-handedness Incidence in the U.S. Unique challenges faced by left-handed writers Modifications for left-handed writers

Spelling Assessment and Instruction
Chapter 10 Spelling Assessment and Instruction

Spelling Assessment and Instruction
English orthography Definition Phoneme–grapheme relationships in English Five principles governing the regularity of English spelling Two approaches to teaching spelling Rule based Word study

Spelling Assessment and Instruction, continued
Differences in spellers Two types of individuals with difficulties in spelling Characteristics of proficient spellers Characteristics of less fluent spellers Difficulty of remedying spelling difficulties Development of spelling skills Models of spelling development Characteristic development of spelling in students with learning disabilities

Formal assessment Purposes of assessment How student performance is affected by the manner in which the test is structured Current tests that include spelling subtests The Test of Written Spelling-4

Informal assessment Error analysis Observations and clinical interviews Spelling error analysis chart Criterion-referenced tests Published CRTs Informal spelling inventories Progress monitoring

Instructional Approaches
Purpose of spelling instruction Principles for teaching spelling to students with learning disabilities Seven common effective practices Traditional approaches Traditional approach may not be effective for students with disabilities Importance of adapting and modifying commercial spelling texts

Instructional Approaches
Remedial approaches Curriculum modifications for implementing remedial programs Multisensory approaches Linguistic approaches Rule-based, bottom-up instruction Direct teacher instruction

Instructional Approaches, continued
Word study approaches Top-down instruction Principles for using a word study approach to instruction The importance of combining a word study approach with explicit strategy instruction

Word lists Determining which words are important to learn to spell Categories of word lists Fixed lists Flow lists Cognitive approaches Specific instructional strategies Corrected-test method Study–test versus test-study-test method

Instructional cues Identifying the student’s specific spelling difficulties Using configuration Mnemonic devices Motivational techniques Computer-assisted instruction Detecting and correcting errors Activities for teaching proofreading Specific dictionary skills

Self-regulation and learning strategy instruction Five ways to foster students’ self-regulation in spelling Cover, copy, and compare Study skills Guidelines for teaching study skills

Chapter 11 Written Expression

Written Expression Recent research on written language
Challenges for students, including students with disabilities Aspects of written expression Formulation Syntax General considerations in developing a writing instruction program for students with disabilities

Stages of Written Language
Prewriting: a planning stage Input Motivation Purpose Narrative (expressive) Informative (functional) Persuasive (functional)

Stages of Written Language, continued
Writing stage: drafting (transcribing) Vocabulary acquisition and word usage (semantics) Sentence structure (syntax and morphology) Paragraph development (transitioning to well-written compositions or reports) Organizational development

Stages of Written Language, continued
Postwriting stage Editing structure Revising content

Assessment Emphases of assessment Formal assessment
Assessing composition Assessing through indirect measures Assessment of process Assessment through holistic rating Formal assessment Subtests of achievement and diagnostic tests Test of Written Language (TOWL-3)

Assessment, continued Informal assessment Prewriting considerations
ASCD’s qualities of writing to be assessed Prewriting considerations Student’s experiential background Prewriting skills Motivation and readiness for writing Writing fluency Words per sentence Types of sentences used

Assessment, continued Vocabulary Syntactical analysis Type–token ratio
Use of unique words Syntactical analysis Specific skills Trends in error patterns

Assessment, continued Content assessment Postwriting assessment
Questions to guide assessment of content Assessment of logical flow Assessment rubrics Portfolios Learning-to-learn strategies related to writing Postwriting assessment Questions guiding postwriting

Instructional Strategies
Commitment to student success Relationship to general education curriculum Prewriting strategies Stimulation of students’ ideas Motivating students to write from their own interests

Instructional Strategies, continued
Steps to follow Help students set the purpose for their writing Specific strategies from NAEP Questions for setting the purpose Questions for functional writing Writing/drafting strategies General considerations Author role Secretarial role

Writing/drafting strategies, continued
A supports model for students with disabilities Using selective feedback Developing initial writing skills Conducive atmosphere Language experience approach (LEA) Relating functional writing to specific purposes Keeping first assignments short Developing vocabulary Goals of vocabulary instruction Reducing the stress of spelling

Sentence development Patterned sentence guides and structures Sentence extension/sentence combining Paragraph development Elements to emphasize Beginning with brief, functional writing tasks Letter writing Paraphrasing Graphic organizers Go For IT…NOW

Composition writing considerations Myklebust-Johnson stage model Concrete–descriptive Concrete–imaginative Abstract–descriptive Abstract–imaginative Methods for encouraging student expression Composition strategy training Story grammar strategies Self-regulated strategy development model Models using mnemonics

Postwriting strategies: revising and editing Selling students on the concept of the working draft Self-evaluation questions to guide students in revising and editing Organizing postwriting instructional exercises COPS REVISE Peer review and feedback

Adolescents with Language Disabilities
Chapter 12 Adolescents with Language Disabilities

Overview Impact of language disabilities on adolescents Importance of language skills for postsecondary educational success The nature of adolescence Cultural variations Number of U.S. adolescents in grades 9–12

Adolescence Definition of adolescence
Period between childhood and adulthood Shift in emotional maturity Beginning and end of adolescence Puberty Chronological age Economic and/or emotional independence Beginning to work and be free of parental sanctions Questions to help define beginning and end of adolescence Subcategories of adolescence

Adolescence, continued
Tasks associated with adolescence Significant tasks associated with adolescence How the presence of a disability affects these tasks

Characteristics of Adolescence
Sexual maturation Physical development Moral development Challenges created by rapid growth and sexual maturation Responses to appearances, actions, and/or feelings Emotional responses Influence of peers

Characteristics of Adolescents with Disabilities
Comparisons with students without disabilities Academic deficits Social skills deficits Types of disabilities affected Lack of peer acceptance Motivation problems Behavior problems Psychological problems

Characteristics of Adolescents with Disabilities, continued
General problems facing adolescents Suicide and suicidal ideation Drug and alcohol abuse Teen pregnancy and other problems School demands Language problems and interventions with adolescents

Receptive language How a difficulty in this area affects adolescents in school Reading Importance of teaching reading at the secondary level Students’ reading vocabulary Woodward and Peters’ list of frequently used content terms Using SQ3R with secondary students Literacy strategies Listening and attention

Adolescents with Language Disabilities, continued
Expressive language Written expression Teaching written expression in steps Isolated skills approach Holistic approach Spelling Handwriting Oral expression: Using Quick-Talks Expressive vocabulary: Activities Pragmatics: Examples of activities to promote pragmatics

General instructional considerations with adolescents Student motivation Role of family and peers Curricular options Alternative curricular options Remediation Maintenance Functionality

Study skills Commonly used study skills and their significance for learning Accommodations Teacher efforts to modify the learning environment Advanced organizers Post-organizers

General school survival skills “Teacher-pleasing behaviors” Six survival skills secondary students need Activities to teach school survival skills

Language Instruction for Students with Disabilities Fourth Edition

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Language Instruction for Students with Disabilities Fourth Edition

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