2. What is Evolution? Change over time
The theory of evolution proposes that modern forms of life have descended from earlier forms of life and changed as they descended.
What caused the “changes” or differences in traits?
MUTATIONS!!
Can we control this?

3. Why is the Theory of Evolution so Controversial?
People have varying beliefs on the origin of life due to religion.
Biological evolution does not study the origin of life. It only studies the changes in life forms since their origin.

4. Mechanisms that drive evolution?
Mutation= random changes in the DNA
Natural Selection
Gene Flow= movement of alleles into or out of a population
Genetic drift= changes in the alleles of a population due to random events (i.e. natural disaster.
Important terms to know:
adaptation- A characteristic that increases fitness.
fitness- The ability to survive and reproduce.

5. What is natural selection?
A theory introduced by Charles Darwin
A process that increases or decreases the presence of a trait depending on the trait’s ability to keep the organism alive and reproducing.
3 conditions must be met for natural selection to occur:
Variation in characteristics (due to mutations)
Differences in fitness
Heritability (can be passed down to offspring) of the characteristic

6. Examples of Natural Selection
Galapagos finches= different beaks
Male peacocks= varying brightness in their feathers
Giraffes= varying neck length
Sharks= white on the underside and blue/gray on top
Humans= varying resistance to malaria
Bacteria= antibiotic resistance

7. Natural Selection Lab

8. Natural Selection Lab

9. How do we know if evolution has occurred?
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle calculates genetic variety in a population. If the genetic variety remains constant from one generation to the next, it is said to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (not evolving).
The H-W equation is:
p2 + 2pq + q2= 1 (or 100%)
p + q= 1

10. Hardy-Weinberg continued…
q2= the frequency of homozygous recessive individuals.
2pq = the frequency of heterozygous individuals.
p2= the frequency of homozygous dominant individuals.
p= the frequency of the dominant allele.
q= the frequency of the recessive allele.

11. Hardy-Weinberg continued…
Five conditions must be met for a population to remain in H-W equilibrium:
Random mating
No movement of members into or out of the population
No natural selection
No mutations
Population must be large

12. Hardy-Weinberg Practice Brown hair (B) is dominant to blonde hair (b)
Hardy-Weinberg Practice Brown hair (B) is dominant to blonde hair (b). If there are 168 brown-haired people in a population of 200, what are the frequencies of homozygous dominant, homozygous recessive and heterozygous individuals?

13. Hardy-Weinberg Goldfish Lab

15. Another H-W problem
Tongue rolling is a dominant trait. Who in the class is homozygous recessive (tt) and cannot roll his/her tongue? What are the p2, 2pq and q2 values for the class?

16. Cladogram
Evolutionary relatedness between organisms can be demonstrated on a diagram called a cladogram.
Organisms with similar characteristics are placed more closely on the diagram because they are thought to have evolved more closely to one another.
As an organism evolves, there is a new branch on the cladogram.
Characteristics that evolve between species are called derived characters.

19. One more H-W problem
Calculate the p2, 2pq and q2 values when 14 out of 113 members of a population have the recessive trait for left handedness.

20. Evidence of Common Ancestry
The theory of evolution states that all living things have descended from another life form, just as you have descended from your parents and they descended from their parents.
The evidence that supports this theory includes:
Fossils
DNA
Embryo structure
Comparative anatomy

21. Evidence of Common Ancestry- Fossil Record
Layers of rock contain fossils
new layers cover older ones
creates a fossil record over time
fossils show a series of organisms that have lived on Earth

22. Evolution from sea to land
Fossils are also evidence of transitional (in between) forms.
In 2006, there was the fossil discovery of the missing link between sea and land animals
4 limbs
called Tiktaalik

23. Evidence of Common Ancestry- Comparative Anatomy
Animals with different structures on the surface
But when you look under the skin…
It tells an evolutionary story of common ancestors

24. How could these very different animals have the same bones?
Compare the bones
Limbs of different animals that perform different functions are built with the same bone structure
How could these very different animals have the same bones?

25. Homologous structures
Structures that come from the same origin
homo = same
logous = information
Forelimbs of humans, cats, whales, & bats are homologous structures.
same internal structure but different functions
evidence of common ancestor
The greater the # of homologous structures between organisms, the more closely related they are.

26. But don’t be fooled by these…
Analogous structures
look similar on the outside
have the same function
different internal structure
This means they do not have a close evolutionary relationship
How is a bird like a bug?

28. Vestigial organs Structures of modern animals that have no function
evolutionists believe that these were functional in ancestors
evidence of change over time
some snakes & whales have pelvis bones & leg bones of walking ancestors
eyes on blind cave fish
human tail bone

29. Because they used to walk on land!
Vestigial organs
Hind leg bones on whale fossils
Why would whales have pelvis & leg bones if they were always sea creatures?
Because they used to walk on land!

30. Evidence of Common Ancestry- Embryology
Development of an embryo tells an evolutionary story
The greater the # of similar structures during embryo development, the more closely related they are.

32. Evidence of Common Ancestry- Biochemistry
Comparing DNA & protein structure
Every living thing uses the same genetic code! 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
110
120
Lamprey
Frog
Bird
Dog
Macaque
Human 32 8 45 67
125
The fewer the number of differences in the amino acid sequence of common proteins, the more closely related organisms are.
number of amino acids different from human hemoglobin

33. What 2 organisms are the least alike?
Horse
Chicken
Tuna
Frog
Shark
Turtle
Monkey
Rabbit
Human 6 9 8 14 1 4 5 12 7 X 10 13 2 11 3
What 2 organisms on the chart above are the most alike in terms of DNA?
What 2 organisms are the least alike?
What is the turtle’s closest relative? Why does this data make sense?

34. What data from whole genome sequencing can tell us about evolution of humans

35. Example: the Evolutionary Hypothesis of Common Ancestry
Chromosome Numbers in the great apes:
human (Homo) 46 chimpanzee (Pan) 48 gorilla (Gorilla) 48 orangutan (Pogo) 48
Testable prediction:
If these organisms share a common ancestor, that ancestor had either 48 chromosomes (24 pairs) or 46 (23 pairs).

36. Chromosome Numbers in the great apes (Hominidae):
Ancestral Chromosomes
Chromosome Numbers in the great apes (Hominidae):
human (Homo) 46 chimpanzee (Pan) 48 gorilla (Gorilla) 48 orangutan (Pogo) 48
Fusion
Homo sapiens
Inactivated centromere
Telomere sequences
Centromere
share a common ancestor with apes?
This has the potential of contradicting evolution
There are genetic similarities between humans & apes
But humans have 2 fewer chromosomes (24 pairs vs. 24 pairs)
Where’s the missing chromosome? can’t lose it = lethal
Must have been a fusing. So should be able to look at our genome & find the fusing. If we don’t find it then evolution is wrong.
Nifty little markers = centromeres & telomeres. Fusing would put telomeres in the middle of a chromosomes. If we don’t find this then evolution is wrong.
Chr #2 was formed by head to head fusion of 2 primate chromosomes
The centromere that has been inactivated corresponds to chimp chromosome #13
Telomere
Testable prediction: Common ancestor had 48 chromosomes (24 pairs) and humans carry a fused chromosome; or ancestor had 23 pairs, and apes carry a split chromosome.

37. Inactivated centromere
Human Chromosome #2 shows the exact point at which this fusion took place
“Chromosome 2 is unique to the human lineage of evolution, having emerged as a result of head-to-head fusion of two acrocentric chromosomes that remained separate in other primates. The precise fusion site has been located in 2q13–2q14.1 (ref. 2; hg 16: – ), where our analysis confirmed the presence of multiple subtelomeric duplications to chromosomes 1, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 19, 21 and 22 (Fig. 3; Supplementary Fig. 3a, region A). During the formation of human chromosome 2, one of the two centromeres became inactivated (2q21, which corresponds to the centromere from chimp chromosome 13) and the centromeric structure quickly deterioriated (42).”
Homo sapiens
Inactivated centromere
Telomere sequences
share a common ancestor with apes?
This has the potential of contradicting evolution
There are genetic similarities between humans & apes
But humans have 2 fewer chromosomes (24 pairs vs. 24 pairs)
Where’s the missing chromosome? can’t lose it = lethal
Must have been a fusing. So should be able to look at our genome & find the fusing. If we don’t find it then evolution is wrong.
Nifty little markers = centromeres & telomeres. Fusing would put telomeres in the middle of a chromosomes. If we don’t find this then evolution is wrong.
Chr #2 was formed by head to head fusion of 2 primate chromosomes
The centromere that has been inactivated corresponds to chimp chromosome #13
Chr 2
Hillier et al (2005) “Generation and Annotation of the DNA sequences of human chromosomes 2 and 4,” Nature 434: 724 – 731.

38. Building “family” trees
Evolution evidence can be used to create family trees. Closely related species are branches on the tree — coming from a common ancestor

39. Human Impact on Evolution- Selective Breeding
Humans create the change over time
“descendants” of the wolf

40. I liked breeding pigeons!
Artificial Selection
…and the examples keep coming!
I liked breeding pigeons!

41. Insecticide resistance
Human activities like spraying crop fields with insecticides leads to:
The survival of insects that are resistant to the insecticide
Resistant survivors reproduce
Resistance is inherited
Insecticide becomes less & less effective
The evolution of resistance to insecticides in hundreds of insect species is a classic example of natural selection in action.
The results of application of new insecticide are typically encouraging, killing 99% of the insects.
However, the effectiveness of the insecticide becomes less effective in subsequent applications. The few survivors from the early applications of the insecticide are those insects with genes that enable them to resist the chemical attack. Only these resistant individuals reproduce, passing on their resistance to their offspring. In each generation the % of insecticide-resistant individuals increases.