Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Gholipour A. 2011. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Organizational Behavior:
Stress Management Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

What is Stress? An adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being . Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Inverted-U Relationship between Stress and Job Performance
Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Yerkes-Dodson Law Degree of arousal Quality of performance Very difficult task Moderately difficult task Easy task Some arousal is necessary High arousal is helpful on easy tasks As level of arousal increases, quality of performance decreases with task difficulty Too much arousal is harmful Keywords: Yerkes-Dodson law Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

General Adaptation Syndrome
Stage 1 Alarm Reaction Stage 2 Resistance Stage 3 Exhaustion Normal Level of Resistance Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Stressors and Stress Outcomes
Work Stressors Physical environment Role-related Interpersonal Organizational Individual Differences Consequences of Stress Physiological Behavioral Psychological Stress Nonwork Stressors Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Symptoms of Stress Physical and Behavioural Symptoms - Racing heart - Cold, sweaty hands - Headaches - Shallow or erratic breathing - Nausea or upset tummy - Constipation - Shoulder or back pains - Rushing around - Working longer hours - Losing touch with friends - Fatigue - Sleep disturbances - Weight changes Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Symptoms of Stress continued
Cognitive Symptoms (or Thoughts) - Forgetting things - Finding it hard to concentrate - Worrying about things - Difficulty processing information - Negative self-statements Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Symptoms of stress continued
Emotional symptoms - Increased irritability or anger - Anxiety or feelings of panic - Fear - Tearfulness - Increased interpersonal conflicts Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Overview of Terminology
Stress: A state of disharmony or a threat to homeostasis Physiological changes increase alertness, focus, and energy Perceived demands may exceed the perceived resources Coping: The ability to maintain control, think rationally, and problem solve Resilience: Resistant quality that permits a person to recovery quickly and thrive in spite of adversity The term “protective factors” is a term often used when discussing stress, coping, and resilience. Protective factors enhance coping and resilience and decreases the likelihood that the stress will have a negative outcome. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Stress Eustress Manageable Stress can lead to growth and enhanced competence Distress Uncontrollable, prolonged, or overwhelming stress is destructive. Acute Stress Immediate response to a threat or challenge Chronic Stress Ongoing exposure to stress, may seem unrelenting Acute stress is a persons immediate “fight-or-flight” response; it cam be intense or even thrilling. Eustress is manageable stress that fosters growth and adaptation as neurobiological changes enhancing functioning as the person rises to meet the challenge. Distress is unmanageable or overwhelming stress. Chronic stress results from daily exposure, such as relationship or work difficulties. Unrelenting stress may exceed the adaptive capacity and lead to health problems. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Acute vs. Chronic Stress
Acute stress Sudden, typically short-lived, threatening event (e.g., robbery, giving a speech) Chronic stress Ongoing environmental demand (e.g., marital conflict, work stress, personality) Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Causes of Stress External causes Family, work, economics, work, school, major life changes, unforeseen events, etc. Internal causes Worry, uncertainty, fear, attitudes, unrealistic expectations, etc. Although there are numerous external causes of stress, humans can create additional internal stress by repetitively focusing on their problems, know as rumination. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Cognitive Model of Stress Lazarus & Folkman
Potential stressor (external event) Primary appraisal – is this event positive, neutral or negative; and if negative, how bad? Secondary appraisal – do I have resources or skills to handle event? If No, then distress. Lazarus & Folkman Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Primary appraisal – Is there a potential threat? Outcome – Is it irrelevant, good, or stressful? If stressful, evaluate further: Harm-loss – amount of damage already caused. Threat – expectation for future harm. Challenge – opportunity to achieve growth, etc Lazarus & Folkman Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Secondary appraisal Do I have the resources to deal effectively with this challenge or stressor? Lazarus & Folkman Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

High Threat Low Resources Demands Stress High Threat Resources High/low demands Moderate Stress Low Threat Low Low demands Some stress Low or no stress Lazarus & Folkman Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Some statistics related to job stress…
40% reported their job was very or extremely stressful; 25% view their jobs as the number one stressor in their lives; 75% believe that workers have more on-the-job stress than a generation ago; 29% felt quite a bit or extremely stressed at work; 26% said they were "often or very often burned out or stressed by their work;" Job stress is more strongly associated with health complaints than financial or family problems. (NIOSH, 2008) Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Role-Related Stressors
Role conflict Interrole conflict Intrarole conflict Person-role conflict Role ambiguity Uncertain duties, authority Workload Too much/too little work Task control Monitoring equipment No work schedule control .. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Interpersonal Stressor: Workplace Violence and Bullying
1- Workplace violence is a stressor to those who: Experience violence at work Observe violence at work Work in jobs with higher risk of violence 2-Workplace Bullying: Offensive, intimidating, or humiliating behavior that degrades, ridicules, or insults another person at work. Workplace bullies tend to be people with higher authority Workplace bullying is reduced through: Careful hiring 360-degree feedback Conflict resolution system Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Interpersonal Stressor: Workplace Violence and Bullying
3- Sexual Harassment : Unwelcome conduct -- detrimental effect on work environment or job performance Quid pro quo employment or job performance is conditional on unwanted sexual relations Hostile work environment an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Work-Nonwork Stressors
Time-based conflict due to work schedule, commuting, travel women still do “second shift” (most housework) Strain -based conflict work stress affects home, and vice versa Role behavior conflict incompatible work and nonwork roles Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Job Strain – Karasek et al., 1981
Demands High Low Control STRAIN Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Job Stress – other aspects
Physical environment Poor interpersonal relationships Perceived inadequate recognition or advancement Unemployment (even anticipated) Role conflict High responsibility for others Example of high responsibility for others is air traffic controllers. Ask the students, even from their own experience, what they think are some of the behavioural and psychological effects of work stress: higher rates of absenteeism, job turn-over, tardiness, job dissatisfaction, sabotage, and poor job performance. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Time Management Set short-term (e.g., daily) and long-term (e.g., yearly) goals. Make daily to-do lists (prioritize each). Make a daily schedule for when and where you will carry out your to-do list items (estimate time allocated for each to-do item). Revise throughout the day as needed. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Work-Nonwork Stressors
Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Stress and Occupations
Accountant Artist Mechanic Forester Hospital manager Physician (GP) Psychologist School principal Police officer Tel. operator U.S. and Iran President Waiter/waitress Low-Stress Occupations Medium-Stress Occupations High-Stress Occupations Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Individual Differences in Stress
Perceive the situation differently Self-efficacy Locus of control Scarlet personality Learned helplessness Different threshold levels of resistance to stressor Store of energy Use different stress coping strategies Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Learned Helplessness Prevent a dog from escaping electric shocks, and it will stop trying to get away. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Type A / Type B Behavior Pattern
Type A Behavior Pattern Type B Behavior Pattern Talks rapidly Is devoted to work Is highly competitive Struggles to perform several tasks Has a strong sense of time urgency Is impatient with idleness Loses temper easily Interrupts others Handles details patiently Is less competitive with others Contemplates issues carefully Has a low concern about time limitations Doesn't feel guilty about relaxing Has a relaxed approach to life Works at a steady pace Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Consequences of Distress
Physiological consequences cardiovascular diseases ulcers, sexual dysfunction, headaches, cancer Behavioral consequences work performance, accidents, decisions absenteeism -- due to sickness and flight workplace aggression Psychological Consequences moodiness, depression, emotional fatigue Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Job Burnout Process Physiological, psychological, and behavioral
Interpersonal and Role-Related Stressors Emotional Exhaustion Physiological, psychological, and behavioral consequences Depersonalization Reduced Personal Accomplishment Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

________ _____ Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Family-Friendly and Work-Life Initiatives
Flexible work time Job sharing Telecommuting Personal leave Childcare facilities . Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Other Stress Management Practices
Withdrawing from the stressor Permanent -- transfer to better fit job Temporary -- work breaks, vacations Changing stress perceptions Self-efficacy, self-leadership Controlling stress consequences Fitness and lifestyle programs Relaxation and meditation Employee counseling Social support Emotional and informational Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Suggestions for Reducing Stress
1. Find a support system: Find someone to talk to about your feelings and experiences. Speak to friends, family, a teacher, a minister, or a counselor. Sometimes we just need to "vent" or get something "off our chest." Expressing our feelings can be relieving, we can feel supported by others, and it can help us work out our problems. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

2. Change your attitude: Find other ways to think about stressful situations. "Life is 10% what happens to us, and 90% how we react to it." Talk to yourself positively. Remember, "I can handle it, " "this will be over soon," or "I have handled difficult things before, and I can do it again." Also, practice acceptance. We need to learn to accept things we cannot change without trying to exert more control over them. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

3. Be realistic: Set practical goals for dealing with situations and solving problems. Develop realistic expectations of yourself and others. Setting our expectations or goals high may seem like a useful way to push ourselves and get things done, but we may also set ourselves up for disappointment and continued stress. Find the courage to recognize your limits Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

4. Get organized and take charge: Being unorganized or engaging in poor planning often leads to frustration or crisis situations, which most always leads to feeling stressed. Plan your time, make a schedule, establish your priorities. Do this regularly until it becomes a productive habit. Take responsibility for your life. Be proactive. Problem solve and look for solutions rather than worry. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

5. Take breaks, give yourself "me time.“: Learn that taking time to yourself for rejuvenation and relaxation is just as important as giving time to other activities. At minimum, take short breaks during your busy day You might purposely schedule time in your day planner just for yourself so that you can recharge for all the other things you need to do. Learn your "red flags" for stress, and be willing to take time to do something about it. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

6. Take good care of yourself: Eat properly, get regular rest, keep a routine. Allow yourself to do something you enjoy each day. Paradoxically, the time we need to take care of ourselves the most, when we are stressed, is the time we do it the least. When we feel overwhelmed we tend to eat poorly, sleep less, stop exercising, and generally push ourselves harder. This can tax the immune system and cause us to become ill more easily. If we take good care of ourselves to begin with, we will be better prepared to manage stress and accomplish our tasks in the long run. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

7. Learn to say "no.“: Learn to pick and choose which things you will say "yes" to and which things you will not. Protect yourself by not allowing yourself to take on every request or opportunity that comes your way. It is okay to decline a request for a favor. Saying "no" does not mean you are bad, self-centered, or uncaring. Learn skills of assertiveness so that you can feel more confident and have effective ways of saying "no." Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

8. Get regular exercise: Exercising regularly can help relieve some symptoms of depression and stress, and help us to maintain our health. Exercise can build confidence, self-esteem, and self-image. It is also a great way to take time for yourself, blow off steam, and release physical tension. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

9. Get a hobby, do something different: For a balanced lifestyle, play is as important as work. Leisure activities and hobbies can be very enjoyable and inspiring, and they can offer an added sense of accomplishment to our lives. For ideas on new hobbies, browse through a bookstore or a crafts store, surf the internet, look up local organizations, see what classes or courses are available in your community or from a nearby college or university. Don't quickly dismiss new opportunities. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

10. Slow down: Know your limits and cut down on the number of things you try to do each day, particularly if you do not have enough time for them or for yourself. Be realistic about what you can accomplish effectively each day. Monitor your pace. Rushing through things can lead to mistakes or poor performance. Take the time you need to do a good job. Poorly done tasks can lead to added stress. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

11. Laugh, use humor: Do something fun and enjoyable such as seeing a funny movie, laughing with friends, reading a humorous book, or going to a comedy show. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

12. Learn to relax: Develop a regular relaxation routine. Try yoga, meditation, or some simple quiet time. Relaxation techniques are skills that need to be developed with patience and practice so that we can use them effectively during difficult times of stress later on. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Relaxation Exercises Many different kinds, but some are: Deep Breathing Visualization: Visualization is a nice way of giving our minds and bodies a "mini vacation.“ Muscle Relaxation When we feel stressed, it is common for our rate of breathing to increase. We also tend to breath in a shallow manner, more highly in our chest. A deep breathing exercise allows us to take fuller, slower breaths that reflect a true relaxed state It involves using imagery to fully immerse ourselves in a pleasant scene, noticing the sights, sounds, smells, and tactile sensations. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Stare at a picture Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

“Calm” “Down” Breathing Exercise
Slowing your breath activates the parasympathetic nervous system which helps lower heart rate, perspiration, and other physical signs of stress Close your eyes Take a deep breath in and say "calm" in your head as you inhale As you exhale say "down" to yourself Repeat a few times Focusing on breathing quiets your mind, releasing tension Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

The “Fight or Flight” Response
When situations seem threatening to us, our bodies react quickly to supply protection by preparing to take action. This physiological reaction is known as the "fight or flight" response. The physiological response to a stressor is known as reactivity Physiological responses can accumulate and result in long-term wear on the body In the days of the cavemen, the fight or flight response was key to their survival. When faced with a threatening tiger, for instance, a caveman had two main choices. He could fight the tiger or he could run away. Either way, his body had to prepare quickly to respond. The caveman's heart began to race, his breathing rate increased, his pupils dilated, his muscles became tense, and his mind processed information rapidly. This natural response to danger helped the cavemen to protect himself and to survive. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Coping & Resilience Coping Resilience Ability to control emotions Ability to perceive reality Ability to think rationally Ability to problem solve Culturally defined The ability to bounce back The positive capacity to cope with stress Provides resistance to negative events Hardiness, Resourcefulness Coping is a balancing act between biological, psychological, and social process. The person who is able to cope effectively responds to stress in a culturally suitable manner and is able to think rationally, problem solve, and place the stressors in proper context (Pranulis, 1975). On a sobering note, people with poorer outcomes often experience greater losses or adversity; often describing a sense of adversity, bereavement, fewer opportunities, less control and greater emotional and physical limitations (Hildon, Smith, Netuveli & Blane, 2008). Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Coping Adaptive Coping Contribute to resolution of the stress response Maladaptive Coping Strategies that cause further problems Active Coping Actively seeking resolution to the stress Coping strategies are learned by observing others, most often our parents. Adaptive coping strategies are productive and work to resolve the situation and produce long-term positive results. For the ill patient, adaptive behaviors help the person adjust to the illness, solve problems, and cooperate with the therapeutic program. Maladaptive strategies are counterproductive and result in additional problems that set the person up to be placed back in similar situations, leading to further challenges. Active coping is a healthy promotional strategy that is characterized by actively facing the problem and seeking resources to resolve the situation, i.e. seeking help, seeking information, problem solving, etc. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Promote Adaptive Coping
Realistic expectations Set realistic goals Planning Anticipate problems, have a backup plan Reframing Change the way you look at things Relaxation Learn relaxation techniques, take time-out for leisure Discuss the problem Utilize existing social supports to problem solve Stress is often worsened by a persons unrealistic expectations. Realistic expectations enable a person to make accurate estimations of the demands and allows psychological preparation, thus facilitating the effective coping. Plan for problems and have a backup plan. Cognitively reframe the way you look at a difficult situations to help identify viable solutions—and recognize that sometimes events are beyond your control. Utilize your existing social support network to help resolve stressful situations. Maintain a balance between work and leisure. take time for relaxation and leisure activities. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Promote Adaptive Coping
Training Prepares for stressful events Nutrition Eat healthy, avoid skipping meals Exercise Include regular exercise Sleep Get adequate sleep—avoid fatigue Training enhances procedural memory and prepares the person in advance to deal with stressful challenge. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training is a common example of how training can prepare a nurse in advance for a stressful situation. Proper nutrition is also important. It is important to have a source of energy so that your body can deal with the stress—glucose is needed for cognitive function. Skipping meals can deprive the body of needed resources. However, over use of comfort foods can have an undesired effect. Exercise is well known to cause positive neurobiological changes and it prepares a person physically. Without adequate sleep cognitive function declines. Power naps can be helpful but long naps can disrupt the sleep cycle (Posen, 1995). The difference between adaptive and maladaptive coping is that adaptive coping helps resolve problems and maladaptive coping creates more problems. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Avoid Maladaptive Coping
Blurring of boundaries Avoidance/withdrawal Negative attitude Anger outbursts Alcohol/Drugs Hopelessness Negative self-talk Resentment Violence Blurring of boundaries: There are no definitive lines between adaptive and maladaptive coping categories. For example, seeking social support is considered adaptive if it is sought from friends, peers, family, or clergy. However, if a nurse was to share their personal problems with their patients it would be a maladaptive blurring of boundaries. Avoidance can cause a dramatic reduction in fear and anxiety, which is rewarding. This is what is referred to as instrumental conditioning (Southwick, 2007). Hiding from our fears may lessen our immediate anxiety, but it won’t extinguish it. Therefore voidance is maladaptive because the stressful situation remains unresolved. That is what exposure therapies are about, staying with a fear to give the patient a sense of control. Alcohol could be beneficial if a person were to have a glass of wine before bedtime to help them unwind, but too much can disrupt sleep architecture. Alcohol is detrimental if a person spends money they do not have, they miss work because of a hangover, if it creates marital or legal problems, etc. Alcohol is also associated with sexual aggression and assault. Illicit drugs cause many of the same problems as alcohol, but also the user associates with criminals and puts the user at risk for serious legal harm. Violence places the person at risk for physical or legal harm. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Promote Resilience Factors
Positive Role Models Optimism Humor Moral Compass Altruism Religion & Spirituality Social Support Overview of commonly cited resilience factors, there are many more. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

What is coping? Process of managing the discrepancy between the demands of the situation and the available resources. Ongoing process of appraisal and reappraisal (not static) Can alter the stress problem OR regulate the emotional response. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Emotion-Focused Coping
Aimed at controlling the emotional response to the stressor. Behavioural (use of drugs, alcohol, social support, distraction) and cognitive (change the meaning of the stress). Often used when the person feels he/she can’t change the stressor (e.g., bereavement); or Doesn’t have resources to deal with the demand. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Problem-Focused Coping
Aimed at reducing the demands of the situation or expanding the resources for dealing with it. Often used when the person believes that the demand is changeable. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Coping responses – respond yes or no.
Tried to see the positive side of it. Tried to step back from the situation and be more objective. Prayed for guidance or strength. Sometimes took it out on others when I felt angry and depressed. Got busy with other things to keep my mind off the problem. Read relevant material for solutions and considered several alternatives. Took some action to improve the situation. Think about a very stressful personal crisis or life event you experienced in the last year—the more recent and the more stressful the event, the better for this exercise. How did you handle this situation and your stress? Some of the ways people handle stress are listed below. Respond “yes” or “no” to each one, indicating which you used. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Problem-Focused Coping
Planful Problem-Solving: analyzing the situation to arrive at solutions and then taking direct action to correct the problem. Confrontive Coping: taking assertive action, often involving anger or risk taking to change the situation. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Emotion-Focused Coping
Seeking social support – can be either problem or emotion-focused coping. Distancing – cognitive effort to detach Escape-avoidance – wishful thinking or taking action to escape or avoid it. Self-control – attempting to modulate one’s feelings in response to the stressor. Accepting responsibility – acknowledging one’s role in the situation while trying to put things right. Positive reappraisal – create positive meaning. Cognitive effort to detach oneself from the situation or to create a positive outlook. Escape-avoidance coping is particularly maladaptive because the person is prevented from either learning that the feared event never happens or prevented from learning that one can effectively cope with the event. Positive reappraisal: trying to create a positive meaning from the situation in terms of personal growth. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Cognitive Re-structuring
Process by which stress-provoking thoughts are replaced with more constructive one. Many of these personality constructs seem to affect health via their effect on coping styles. How might coping style influence health? One example is with cognitive re-structuring. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Gender and Coping Men generally employ problem-focused coping strategies more than emotional focused strategies. Opposite for women, with women more often employing emotion-focused strategies. If men and women in same occupation, gender differences disappear, suggesting that societal sex roles influence choice of coping strategies. The study of gender differences in coping was conducted by a psychologist at York University, Esther Greengalss. Study was presented at the Society of Health Psychology in montreal in 1996. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Socio-economic Status (SES) and Coping
People with higher SES tend to use problem-focused coping strategies more often (Billings & Moos, 1981). Why do people who have lower SES use problem-focus coping strategies less often than those with high SES? SES = socio-economic status Why SES related to coping strategies? Perhaps people of lower SES have less sense of personal control and so have less confidence in being able to change the stress with problem-focused strategies. Alternative, the nature of the stressors of lower SES people may be ones that are less controllable and so less open to be able to be handled by problem-focused strategies. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Social Support Emotional support: expression of empathy, understanding, caring, etc. Esteem support: positive regard, encouragement, validating self-worth Tangible or instrumental: lending a helpful hand. Information support: providing information, new insights, advice. Network support: feeling of belonging Note that not all social support is necessarily beneficial to health. For example, some studies have found that too much or overly intrusive social support may actually exacerbate stress. In a study we did we found that while participating in pleasurable social activities was associated with a lower risk of premature mortality following an acute myocardial infarction, larger sized social networks was associated with a higher mortality risk (CAMIAT study). Social support may affect health by both a main effect (I.e., higher social support better regardless of background stress level) and as a buffering effect (I.e., buffers the effect of stress on health). Some suggestion that social support is best when it matches the kind of support available with the individual’s needs. Note that social support can also be a source of stress when supporters don’t provide the kind of support we need (e.g., not empathic, keep offering unrealistic suggestions for what the person can achieve). Talk about our bone-marrow transplant study when patients are afraid to talk about their fears to supporters because they don’t want to alarm their family and friends and conversely, family and friends don’t ask them about how their feeling for fear of raising the thought of a cancer recurrence (I.e., cloak of silence). This reluctance can lead to social isolation. Caregivers can also suffer by the constant demands placed on them. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Factors Influencing Utilization or Availability of Social Support
Temperament – people differ in their needs for social support. Social support can be detrimental if you are the type of person who likes to handle things on your own. Previous experience with social support influences your likelihood of seeking out social support in the future. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Threats to Social Support
Stressful events can interfere with your ability to use social supports. People under stress may become so focused on talking about their problems that they drive their support systems away. Supports agents may react in a way that makes the problem worse. Support providers may be adversely effected by providing support. Negative effects of inappropriate actions of social support agents may have a stronger negative effect on well-being than does positive support have on improving well-being. Talk about the CAMIAT study. Long-term provision of care for another has been tied to both psychological distress and compromised health. Go to Alzheimer’s study. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Examples of Coping Seeking help from others or offering to help others Talking about their experiences and trying to make sense of what happened Following religious or cultural practices Setting goals and making plans Using defenses like denial Thinking long and hard about the event Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Guiding Principles in Providing Psychological Support
First protect from danger Focus on physical and material care Be direct, active and remain calm Focus on the “here and now” situation Provide accurate information about the situation Assist with mobilization of resources Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Guiding Principles in Providing Psychological Support (cont)
Do not give false assurances Reunite with family members Provide and ensure emotional support Focus on strengths and resilience Encourage self-reliance Respect feelings and cultures of others Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

The 3 A’s Alter: Remove the source of stress by changing something. Use problem solving, direct communication, organization, planning, time management Avoid: Remove oneself from the stressful situation or figuring out how not to get there in the first place. Let go, say no”, delegate. Accept: Accept that the situation is stressful and resource yourself well so that you can deal with it. Also working to change your perception. See it as a challenge rather than as a threat. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

STUDENT STRESS RATING SCALE
The following are events that occur in the life of a college student. Place a check in the left-hand column for each of those events that has happened to you during the last 12 months. ___ Death of a close family member points ____ Jail term - 80 points ____ Final year or first year in college - 63 points ____ Pregnancy (to you or caused by your) - 60 points ____ Severe personal illness or injury - 53 points ____ Marriage - 50 points ____ Any interpersonal problems - 45 points ____ Financial difficulties - 40 points ____ Death of a close friend - 40 points ____ Arguments with your roommate (more than every other day) - 40 points ____ Major disagreements with your family - 40 points’ ____ Major change in personal habits - 30 points ____ Change in living environment - 30 points ____ Beginning or ending a job - 30 points ____Problems with your boss or professor - 25 points ____ Outstanding personal achievement - 25 points ____ Failure in some course - 25 points ____ Final exams - 20 points ____ Increased or decreased dating - 20 points ____ Changes in working conditions - 20 points ____ Change in your major ____ Change in your sleeping habits - 18 points ____ Several-day vacation - 15 points ____ Change in eating habits - 15 points ____ Family reunion - 15 points ____ Change in recreational activities - 15 points ____ Minor illness or injury - 15 points ____ Minor violations of the law - 11 points Score: _________________

INTERPRETING YOUR SCORE
Less than 150 points: relatively low stress level in relation to life events points: borderline range Greater than 300 points : high stress in relation to life events Note: From Girdano, D.A., Everly, G. S., Jr., & Dusek, D. E. (1990). Controlling stress and tension (3rd edition), ENnglewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Group Exercise Break into groups Share the 3 aspects of your job that you love Share the 3 aspects of your job that are stressful Share your strategies for coping with stress Gholipour A Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

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