1. Veterinary Technology
Chapter 3
The Skeletal System

2. Objectives Examine the skeletal system, and describe its functions.
Identify the components of bone, discuss the three cell types found in bones, and discuss how bones are classified.

3. Objectives Differentiate between moveable and immoveable joints.
Discuss the chemical process in the formation of bones and calcification.
Identify and recall the names of bones found in livestock and companion animals.

4. Terms calcification carpals cartilage cartilaginous joints diaphysis
endochondral
ossification
epiphysis
femur
fibrous joint
fibula
flat bones
humerus
joint
long bones
mandible
maxilla
metacarpals

5. Terms metatarsus osteoblasts osteoclasts osteocytes osteoid radius
red marrow
ribs
scapula
sesamoid bones
short bones
skeletal system
skull
synovial fluid
synovial joints
tarsus
tibia
ulna
vertebrae
yellow marrow

6. How many bones do humans have?
When you were born you had over 300 bones. As you grew, some of these bones began to fuse together. The result? An adult has only 206 bones!
You have over 230 moveable and semi-moveable joints in your body.
The human hand has 27 bones; your face has 14!
The longest bone in your body? Your thigh bone, the femur -- it's about 1/4 of your height.
The smallest is the stirrup bone in the ear which can measure 1/10 of an inch.

7. What is the skeletal system, and what are its functions?
In mammals the skeletal system consists of bones, teeth, joints, and structures that connect bones to other bones or muscles (e.g., ligaments, tendons, and cartilage).
The skeletal system gives animals shape and has the following functions.

8. What is the skeletal system, and what are its functions?
1. Support: Many bones of the body provide support, but this is especially true of the long bones.
For example, the long bones in legs help support the trunk.
Bones other than long bones also provide support.
For example, the first vertebra supports the skull.

9. What is the skeletal system, and what are its functions?
2. Protection: A vital function of the skeletal system is the protection of vital internal organs.
The skull protects the brain, and the rib cage protects the heart, lungs, and abdominal organs.

10. What is the skeletal system, and what are its functions?
3. Mineral storage: The outer layers of bony tissues are used for the storage of minerals (primarily calcium and phosphorus).
Deposits and withdrawals of mineral ions from bone are continuous, which helps to maintain blood levels of calcium and phosphorus.

11. What is the skeletal system, and what are its functions?
4. Blood-cell formation: The inner core of bone is a soft tissue called bone marrow. Bone marrow is made in this hollow center called the medullary cavity.
Red marrow is a major site of blood cell and platelet formation.
5. Energy storage: Yellow marrow is found in the shaft of long bones and other mature bones.
Yellow marrow consists mostly of fat and serves as an energy reserve.

12. Bone Structure C. Bones are classified by shape:
1. Long bones are cylindrical in shape and consist of a shaft with two ends.
Found in limbs, long bones typically support body weight and act as levers.
The femur, or thighbone, is an example of a long bone.

13. Bone Structure
2. Short bones are cube-like in that they are nearly equal in length and width.
Short bones are found in the knee and hock and help to absorb the shock of impact
and make up the fingers and toes.

14. Bone Structure 3. Flat bones are typically thinner and usually curved.
Flat bones (e.g., ribs, scapula, and some bones in the skull) surround and protect vital organs.

15. Bone Structure of a Long Bone -page 30
Outer shell composed of dense (compact) bone.
Underneath, the spongy (cancellous) bone
Where is it found? Read 2nd paragraph!
Medullary Cavity = hollow center of the diaphysis (shaft).
Periosteum = thin layer of connective tissue.
Blends into tendons and ligaments, binding them to the bone

16. Bone Structure of a Long Bone -page 30

17. What are bone components. What are the three cell types found in bones
What are bone components? What are the three cell types found in bones? How are bones classified
4. Sesamoid bones are small and embedded in tendons.
The patella (knee cap) is the only human sesamoid bone.
5. Irregular bones have a variety of shapes and sizes.
Vertebrae and some bones in the skull are examples of irregular bones.

18. What are bone components. What are the three cell types found in bones
What are bone components? What are the three cell types found in bones? How are bones classified
4. Sesamoid bones are small and embedded in tendons.
The patella (knee cap) is the only human sesamoid bone.
5. Irregular bones have a variety of shapes and sizes.
Vertebrae and some bones in the skull are examples of irregular bones.

19. What is the difference between a moveable and an immoveable joint?
A joint, or articulation, is the union of bone or cartilage.
The classification of joints is based on joint structure and mobility.
Joints are classified as fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial.

20. What is the difference between a moveable and an immoveable joint?
A. Fibrous joints include those united by connective tissue or fused bone.
Fibrous joints, or fixed joints, typically do not permit any type of movement.
An example of this type of joint is found in the skull.

21. What is the difference between a moveable and an immoveable joint?
B. Cartilaginous joints allow only slight movement; these are joints in which the bones are connected with cartilage.
An example of a cartilaginous joint is the area between vertebrae.
This area has a pad of cartilage that separates and cushions vertebrae.

22. What is the difference between a moveable and an immoveable joint?
C. Synovial joints are freely movable joints in which the bones are held together (at the joints) by ligaments.
Within the joint is synovial fluid, which lubricates the joint and permits it to move freely and without friction.
Types of synovial joints include ball-and-socket, hinge, and pivot.

23. What is the difference between a moveable and an immoveable joint?
1. Ball-and-socket joints allow movement in all directions.
For example, the ball of the femur fits into the socket on the hip bone.
2. A hinge joint allows movement in one axis.
The knee and elbow joints are examples of hinge joints.
Hinge joints work similarly to a hinged door in that they primarily allow movement in one direction.

24. What is the difference between a moveable and an immoveable joint?
3. A pivot joint is found between the first and second vertebrae.
It allows the head to be turned in more than one direction.
A pivot joint allows rotation around a point.
STOP 11/17/09

25. Types of Bone Breaks
Fractures are common; the average person has two during a lifetime. They occur when the physical force exerted on the bone is stronger than the bone itself. Your risk of fracture depends, in part, on your age.

26. Bone Fractures
There are many types of fractures, but the main categories are complete, incomplete, compound and simple. Complete and incomplete fractures refer to the way the bone breaks:
In a complete fracture, the bone snaps into two or more parts;
in an incomplete fracture, the bone cracks but does not break all the way through.
In a compound fracture, also called an open fracture, the bone breaks through the skin;

27. More on Fractures
In a simple fracture, also called a closed fracture, the bone breaks but there is no open wound in the skin.
Greenstick fracture: an incomplete fracture in which the bone is bent. This type occurs most often in children.
Transverse fracture: a fracture at a right angle to the bone's axis.
Oblique fracture: a fracture in which the break slopes.
Comminuted fracture: a fracture in which the bone fragments into several pieces.
An impacted fracture is one whose ends are driven into each other.

28. What are bone components. What are the three cell types found in bones
What are bone components? What are the three cell types found in bones? How are bones classified?
Bones are composed of inorganic and organic materials and are classified by shape.
A. Sixty-five percent of bone is inorganic, primarily calcium phosphate, which gives bone its hardness and rigidity.
B. The organic component consists of the three cell types found in bones and osteoid, which is primarily collagen and gives bone its high tensile strength.

29. What are bone components. What are the three cell types found in bones
What are bone components? What are the three cell types found in bones? How are bones classified?
The three cell types found in bones are osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts.
1. The osteoblasts form a bone matrix by secreting collagen, become enclosed in the matrix, and develop into osteocytes.
2. Osteocytes are the principle bone cells that maintain daily cellular activities (e.g., exchange of nutrients and wastes with blood).

30. What are bone components. What are the three cell types found in bones
What are bone components? What are the three cell types found in bones? How are bones classified?
3. Whereas osteoblasts deposit bone, osteoclasts secrete enzymes that digest bone.
Bone is a living tissue that is continually remodeled in response to the body’s need for calcium and for repairing damaged tissue.
Osteoclasts are important in the development, growth, maintenance, and repair of bone.

31. What is the chemical process in the formation of bones and calcification?
As mentioned previously, bone is a living tissue that is continually remodeled in response to the body’s need for calcium and for repairing damaged tissue.
In addition, bone is capable of growth.
Bone begins development long before birth as cartilage, which is a firm but pliable tissue found in mature animals at the ends of long bones and between vertebrae.

32. What is the chemical process in the formation of bones and calcification?
Cartilage is also found in ears and noses.
It is found in higher proportions in younger animals because most cartilage is transformed into bone as animals grow and age.
The process of transforming cartilage into bone is called endochondral ossification.
Even after ossification, bones are ever changing due to growth and remodeling.

33. What is the chemical process in the formation of bones and calcification?
A. Bones grow in length but they also grow in thickness through a process called appositional growth.
Growth in length occurs in long bones at the ends between the epiphysis and diaphysis.
Long bones have two epiphysis (enlarged ends) and one diaphysis (shank).
The area of growth is called the growth plate, or epiphysial–diaphysial cartilage, and is where cartilage is formed in layers.

34. What is the chemical process in the formation of bones and calcification?
The layers gradually become bone through calcification, and a new layer of cartilage is formed.
Calcification is the deposition of calcium salts that harden, which is a process that continues until adulthood.
Once the cartilage is replaced by bone, bone growth stops.
Thus, animal growth stops, except for fattening.

35. What is the chemical process in the formation of bones and calcification?
B. Once a bone has been formed, it is continuously being remodeled.
Bone remodeling involves the action of osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and two hormones: the parathyroid hormone and calcitonin.
The parathyroid hormone (PTH) is secreted by the parathyroid gland when blood calcium levels are low.
PTH stimulates the osteoclast cells, which causes the digestion or resorption of bone.

36. What is the chemical process in the formation of bones and calcification?
As a result, Ca++ is released into the bloodstream. Calcitonin is secreted by the thyroid gland when blood calcium levels are high.
Calcitonin inhibits bone resorption and increases osteoblast activity, which causes a deposition of bone matrix.

37. What are the names of bones commonly found in livestock and companion animals?
There are many bones found in livestock and companion animals that share the same names as human bones.
Veterinarians, livestock producers, and even pet owners benefit from knowing the names of these common bones.

38. What are the names of bones commonly found in livestock and companion animals?
A. The bone that surrounds and protects the brain is known as the skull.
Similarly, bones that surround and protect the spinal cord are known as vertebrae.
There are five types of vertebrae, beginning near the skull with cervical and followed by thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal.
B. The two bones that make up the jaw are known as the mandible and maxilla.
The maxilla is positioned above the mandible.

39. What are the names of bones commonly found in livestock and companion animals?
C. The shoulder blade is called the scapula.
In the front arm (or wing) of an animal, the large single bone above the joint is called the humerus.
Below the joint contains two bones: the ulna and the radius.
The front foot bones are known as the carpals and metacarpals, while the rear foot bones are known as the tarsus and metatarsus.
The rear leg of the animal has a structure similar to the front leg.
The large, single leg bone is called the femur, and the two smaller leg bones below the knee joint are the tibia and fibula.

40. What are the names of bones commonly found in livestock and companion animals?
D. Ribs are bones that surround and protect the heart and lungs, the most vital internal organs.
There are normally many ribs, surrounded with muscle and connective tissue to give the chest cavity movement and protection.
E. Many other bones throughout the animal body each serve a specific function.
Depending on the animal, hundreds of bones can be found throughout the body.

41. Review What is the skeletal system, and what are its functions?
What are bone components? What are the three cell types found in bones? How are bones classified?
What is the difference between a moveable and an immoveable joint?

42. Review
What is the chemical process in the formation of bones and calcification?
What are the names of bones commonly found in livestock and companion animals?