1. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 1 19 th – 23 rd June 2006 Nairobi, Kenya

2. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 2 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) O.S. KALUMIANA

3. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 3 Introduction Solar energy - is produced by the sun due to the nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms to form helium nuclei. The sun radiates in all directions and a small part of the radiation reaches the earth It is practically an infinite source of energy because the life of the Sun is estimated to be some billions of years. Solar energy is one of the promising alternatives to the current energy problems. It holds good promise, both as direct or indirect energy source (wind, biomass, hydro and tidal). Solar energy can be converted to heat – Solar water heaters, solar driers, solar distillers etc Conversion to electricity – Solar Photovoltaic (PV) technology The use of solar energy through photovoltaic (PV) technology is very promising and its use is increasing rapidly in the Africa.

4. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 4 Solar PV Applications Water pumping for small- scale remote irrigation, residential uses in remote villages Lighting for residential needs, schools and health Communications in emergency radios and cellular telephone Refrigeration for medical and household uses Provision of power for televisions, videos stereos, and other appliances.

5. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 5 Solar PV Applications Solar Photovoltaic Project Kicks Off (2006) World Cup Play Nuremberg, Germany [RenewableEnergyAccess.com]. As Germany took the first victory last week in the opening game of the World Cup, one of Germany's own solar photovoltaic companies kicked off completion of a new solar photovoltaic (PV) project lining the upper levels of the stadium where teams will compete over the next few weeks. 12 June 2006 The 140 kW Siemens solar project installed on the Nuremberg World Cup soccer stadium.

6. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 6 Advantages of PV Systems Cost — When the cost is high for extending the utility power line or using another electricity-generating system in a remote location, PV in most cases is often the most cost effective source of electricity Reliability — PV modules have no moving parts and require little maintenance compared to other electricity-generating systems. Modularity — PV systems can be expanded to meet increased power requirements by adding more modules to an existing system. Environment — PV systems generate electricity without polluting the environment and without creating noise. Ability to combine systems — PV systems can be combined with other types of electric generators (wind, hydro, and diesel, for example) to charge batteries and provide power on demand.

7. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 7 Solar Radiation Unlike utility power plants, which produce electricity constantly despite the time of day and year or the weather, the output of PV modules is directly related to these factors Thus in designing a solar system, reliable solar data is required. Solar energy consists of electromagnetic waves like any light waves, X- rays or radio waves. The only difference in the types of waves is the variation in their wavelength. These waves travel through space with an incredible speed of 3X10 5 km/sec The distance of the sun from the earth is 1.5X10 8 km. Variation of about 3% occur during the year. Just outside our atmosphere an area of 1m 2 receives 1,534 W/m 2 It takes approximately 8 minutes for the Sun’s rays to reach the Earth.

8. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 8 Solar Radiation As the solar radiation passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, part of it gets absorbed, reflected and scattered. The extent of attenuation depends on the length of the path, which the radiant energy traverses through the atmosphere. When the sun is overhead, the length of this path is minimum. In that case maximum solar energy reaches the earth; hence the Sun appears most intense around the noon The position of the sun in the sky depends on the time of the year, hour of the day and the position of the earth To account for the dependence of solar radiation on the position of the sun, a solar panel has to be positioned accordingly. Important angles determining the correct position of the solar panel are;  Declination, i.e. the angular position of the sun at solar noon with respect to the plane of the equator  The hour angle after solar noon. Solar noon is defined as the time of the day that the sun is at its highest position.

9. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 9 Solar Radiation The scattered solar radiation coming from all directions is called diffuse radiation. The part of solar radiation, which comes direct from the Sun, is termed as the direct radiation. It is this part of the solar radiation that can be focused by a lens. The diffuse radiation cannot be focused. The sum of the diffuse radiation and the direct radiation is the total radiation that is received on the earth’s surface. This is called the global radiation.

10. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 10 Units and Measures Energy is measured in Joules (J) Power is the rate of energy, i.e. energy supplied or used per unit time. Power is measured in watts (W). One watt of constant power for one hour is one watt-hour of energy. 1000 J = 1 kilo Joule (kJ) 1000 kJ = 1 mega Joule (MJ) 1 Watt-hour = 3600 Joules (J) 1000 Watt-hour (Wh) = 1 kilo Watt-hour = 1 kWh Solar Constant The rate of solar radiation received on a unit area of surface above the earth’s atmosphere at the average Sun-Earth distance when the sun’s rays are normal to the surface is called the Solar constant. The value of the solar constant is 1,367 W/m 2 Solar Irradiance The rate of solar radiation received at any time and place on the earth per unit area is called solar irradiance (W/m 2 )

11. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 11 Units and Measures Solar Insolation Total amount of solar radiation received at a place in a given time interval (usually a day or an hour) is called solar insolation. Solar insolation is generally measured in mega joules per day per area per day (MJ/m 2 / day). Solar insolation is also measured in kilowatt hours per square meter per day (kWh/m 2.day) or equivalently in peak sun hours. Peak sun hours may be defined as the number of hours for which solar insolation would last if it were being received at a constant rate of one kWh/m 2  Maps exist that show the daily global radiation on the earth for specific periods.  The best data are derived from measurements on the spot for a longer time.  In Africa countries, daily totals of global radiation are available from a network of measuring stations

12. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 12 Optimum Orientation of Solar Modules  An optimum orientation of the solar module is one which best matches the annual availability of the amount of solar radiation and its demand.  In Southern Hemisphere, for optimum solar radiation, a module should face the north and make an angle with the horizontal, which is approximately equal to the latitude of the location.  For example, Zambia lies in a latitude belt of about 10° to 20° South. Therefore, for the North half of Zambia, the optimum tilt should be between 15° and 20° and for the southern half of Zambia, the optimum tilt should be between 20° and 25°.

13. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 13 Project Examples Zambia ESCO Project

14. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 14 Zambia ESCO Project 400 solar Consumers  100 at Nyimba  150 at Chipata  150 at Lundazi In the majority of ESCO clients households there is at least one household member with a formal income Normally involved in farming as well# Paying for energy services (2004)  Without PV services, households paid US$7.7 on energy services per month  With PV services, households paid US$11.8 on energy services per month

15. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 15 Zambia ESCO Project Services provided  4 lamps Electricity  1 Radio/TV outlet  Light, used for -Children are able to study more -Reading and writing -Extend working hours Electric services, used for  Entertainment  Replace dry-cell batteries in radio cassette players  TV (and videos)

16. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 16 Zambia ESCO Project Technical functionality  Most common problem – blackouts caused by over usage.  The local ESCO attends to problems  Batteries – component that requires most attention Conclusion  Many households in rural areas are prepared and capable to pay service fee  Reaching the poor and low income groups is difficult  Solar PV technology can improve living standards in rural areas

17. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 17 Zambia: PV for Tribal Chiefs 2005-2006 i.200 SHS targeted for chiefs throughout the country ii.50 Wp SHS with 4lights iii.150 SHS installed to date iv.Maintenance manual to be provided (see sample of manual provided) v.All systems provided free of charge: extension of 100% Government facilitated rural electrification vi.Huge popularity among chiefs who can not, on account of remote location, be connected to the national grid vii.Programme being extended to schools and clinics

18. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 18 PV Experience in Zimbabwe SHS Dissemination modes in  Total approx 85 000 solar home systems  Dissemination modes: -private purchase -GEF Solar project 1993-1998  12 000 45Wp equivalent systems -JICA Study Project 1997  ESCO approach in two household clusters -Chinese donation 1999.  110 SHS with TVs, one communal water pump. Source: Yaw Afrane-Okese & Maxwell Mapako: EDRC, University of Cape Town, Risø International Energy Conference Roskilde, Denmark, 19-21 May 2003: Solar PV Rural Electrification Lessons from South Africa and Zimbabwe

19. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 19 PV Experience in Zimbabwe Private Purchase  Numerically dominant, responsible for at least 72 000 SHS  Mostly small modules  20Mostly small modules, 20-40Wp crystalline and 12Wp amorphous modules  Highly variable installation quality including umounted modules that are basked in the sun and taken indoors night.  Controllers often excluded due to cost  Both fluorescent and incandescent bulbs used, fluorescent lights costly and not readily available  Associated with upper income households, no subsidies

20. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 20 PV Experience in Zimbabwe GEF Solar Project  Three dissemination modes tried out, Private, Utility and NGO delivery  Agribank administered loans, which had own credit scheme excluding the NGO mode which had own credit scheme and eligibility criteria  Crystalline modules 20Wp to 83Wp, batteries initially automotive, later sealed later sealed deep cycle  Lights installed fluorescent only, controller always, controller always installed. Sample inspections for quality of installation. Shortage of inspectors compromised thoroughness  Maintenance not built in and no incentive for installing companies to provide maintenance service (except NGO mode where NGO collected installments)  All subsidies negotiated by the project fell away at end at end of project. Prices rose sharply.  Most installing companies collapsed after end of project when installation rate dropped.

21. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 21 PV Experience in Zimbabwe JICA Study project 1.ESCO approach trial on already installed systems 2.Crystalline modules initially 25Wp, raised to 56Wp after client complaints over inadequacy of 25Wp 3.Lights installed fluorescent only, controllers always installed. All batteries deep cycle. 4.Maintenance by technical college trained technician contracted by ESCO 5.Most clients rural farmers paying maintenance fees annually. Droughts led to poor payments in some years. 6.Project ended with users having option to take over their SHS on payment of lump sum to ESCO 7.Project was bilateral and equipment is owned by Government

22. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 22 PV Experience in Zimbabwe Lessons Learnt 1.Subsidized PV programs are bound to fail as it is difficult to for poor governments to maintain the required subsidy 2.Maintenance is crucial for the long life of PV systems 3.PV programs do not necessarily benefit the poor, who are more inclined to donated PV systems than commercially distributed ones. 4.PV replaced candles as sources of lighting – improved quality

23. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 23 Other Experiences from PV Projects a)Financial viability of the solar energy market remains a difficult problem. remains a difficult problem. b)The NGO support in assessing loan eligibility, fee collection, service management, etc is proving to have reasonable prospects. c)Impossibility of covering operating costs from service fees service fees -a global problem d)The fee collection & system security burden e)Full ownership of the systems by ESCOs results in expensive electronic money collection and anti-tampering devices diverting attention from more quality service delivery. f)The poor do not generally benefit from SHS projects but rather the gap between them and the rich increases, hence the focus on the poor needs to shift g)The critical energy needs of households involving the drudgery many poor people endure through fuel wood collection, wood cooking and indoor air are not integrated into the way SHS are generally disseminated. h)Flexibility in energy service levels from solar PV is an important criterion for customer satisfaction. Survival strategies of the poor require greater flexibility. Source: Yaw Afrane-Okese & Maxwell Mapako: EDRC, University of Cape Town, Risø International Energy Conference Roskilde, Denmark, 19-21 May 2003: Solar PV Rural Electrification Lessons from South Africa and Zimbabwe

24. ADB FINESSE Training Course on Renewable Energy & Energy Efficiency for Poverty Reduction 24 Module 7: PV a)What are the current constraints to PV implementation in your country in particular and Africa in general? b)Who finances PV projects in your country? c)How would an ADB/FINESSE led approach be of benefit to PV implementation in your country?