1. Language is just like human being in that they were born, they grow, and they are old and fade away, eventually disappearing.

2. (1) Old E (449-1066) 449 Saxon got to England 8 th century The poem Beowulf appeared 1066 William the Conqueror invaded the UK (2) Middle E (1066-1500) 1387 J. Chaucer got his Canterbury Tales published 1476 Saxton founded the 1 st printing press by William Caxton 1500 The Great Vowel Shift (3) Modern E (1500- present ) 1564 William Shakespeare was born The poem is composed of stories, leaving us languages spoken by people from all walks at that time. Had a contribution to the uniform of writing. Raised vowels from mid to high. English has got more vocabulary.

3. (Old English ) F  der ure, pu pe eart on heofonum, si pin nama gebalgod. Tobecume pin rice. (Middle English) Oure fadir that art in heuenes halowid be thi name, thi kingdom come. (Modern English) Our Father, who is in heaven, may your name to kept holy. Thy kingdome come.

4. 2.1 Sound change Patterns of sound change 2.2 Morphological change 2.2.1 Loss of cases 2.2.2 Lexical borrowing 2.3 Syntactic change 2.4 Semantic change 2.4.1 Semantic broadening 2.4.2 Semantic narrowing 2.4.3 Semantic shift

5. Ex 1 (English): Old English [  :] → Middle English [  :] → Modern English [ow] Ex 2 (Hakka): the Middle Chinese [h] and [u] → the present [f] OldMiddleModern [sta:n] [st  :n] [stown]‘stone’ [ba:t] [b  :t] [bowt]‘boat’ [ka:t] [k  :t] [kowt]‘coat’ HakkaMandarin fahuawords fa  hua  afraid fonhuanlike  Sound change is systematic.

6.  The most typical pattern for sound change is the English Great Vowel shift: Sound changeexamples Middle E→Modern EMiddle E→Modern E spelling [ i: ]→[ ay ][ mi:s ]→[ mays ]mice [ u: ]→[aw ][ lud ]→[ lawd ]loud [ e: ]→[ i: ][ kwe:n ]→[ kwi:n ]queen [ o: ]→[ u: ][ go:z ]→[ gu:z ]goose [ a: ]→[ e: ][ na:m ]→[ ne:m ]name [  : ] →[ o: ] [ b  :n ] →[ bo:n ]bone [  ] →[ e: ] [ br  :ken ] →[ bre:k ]break An explicit change of our tongue body from front, back, high, and low involved in the Great Vowel Shift.

7.  The sound change conditioned by a certain context, occurring before or after a certain sound. Ex: /g/ in Old English became /w/ if it follows /l, r/ while it remains /g/ elsewhere. Old EMiddle EModern E a. gl  dgl  d ‘glad’ b. halgianhawen‘to hallow’ c. morgenmorwen‘morrow’

8.  A sound change without regard to any condition, it occurring whenever it appears. Ex: In the English Great Vowel Shift, the front high vowel [i : ] becomes [ai].  So far there has been nothing known why free sound changes would happen. Old EMiddle EModern E a. gl  dgl  d ‘glad’ b. halgianhawen‘to hallow’ c. morgenmorwen‘morrow’

9.  Two types of the sound change of synchronic phonology: assimilation and dissimilation.  In classical Latin Greek, [t] becomes [s] if it occurs before [s]. Ex: at similar assimilare assimilate (English)  -s is pronounced [s] when it follows a voiceless consonant, [z] when it follows a voiced sound. [t] [s] / ____ [s] Regressive (total) assimilation (voiced) beds [b  dz] (voiceless) books [b  ks] Progressive (partial) assimilation

10.  The conflicts between two sounds in terms of places or manners of articulation.  Three possible results are: sound variation, deletion, or insertion.

11. Sound variation:  The segment changed when it is not compatible with its neighboring sound. Ex: [l] and [r] are not allowed to co-occur within the same word. line + al scale + al linear scalar

12. Deletion:  Very common in both historical and synchronic phonology. Ex: The velar [g] following a velar nasal [  ] Middle EModern E sing [ s  g ] [s  ] king [ k  g ] [k  ]

13. Insertion ( segment addition ): Ex: [  ] inserted between two alveolar stops [t] and [d]. wanted [w  ntd][w  nt  d] invited[  nvaytd] [  nvayt  d] needed[nidd][nid  d] handed[h  ndd][h  nd  d]

14.  Metathesis: the change of two consonants.  Weakening: the change from regular vowels to schwa [  ] deleted in Modern English.  Strengthening: the change from a voiceless to a voiced consonant, or the change of [w] to [v]. Old EModern E bridbird fristfirst priddethird Middle EModern E [ na:m  ][ neym ]name [ luv  ][lv][lv]love Middle Chinese Hakka [u][vu] [un][vun] [u  ] [vu  ]

15.  Two sounds merged into one segment or one single segment splitting to two independent sounds.  In the Middle E, there’s no velar nasal [  ]. When alveolar nasal [n] + a velar consonant [  ] [n] [][] sinsing Middle E [s  n] [s  ng] Modern E [s  n] [s  ]

16.  Two sounds merged into one segment or one single segment splitting to two independent sounds. In Hakka In Cockney (London area) [n] [][] [n  ] / ___i [][] [f][f] [f] Ex thing [f  n] fin [fn][fn]

17. In appearance conditionalunconditional In terms of types assimilation In terms of direction progressive regressive In terms of sound quality totalpartial dissimilationdeletioninsertionsound variationothers metathesisweakening strengthening fusion splitting

18. Morphological change Internal (loss of case) External (lexical borrowings)

19.  English, Russia and French had a very complete paradigm: any noun can be singular/plural, female/male, nominative/objective/possessive cases.  For the time being only personal pronoun still has some cases in English. Singularplural femalemalefemalemale nominativeshehethey objectiveherhimthem possessiveherhistheir dativesherhimtemthem

20.  Compare different case-suffixed in Old, Middle, and Modern English: SingularOld EMiddle EModern Espelling nominative/hund//hu:nd//hawnd/‘hound’ obejctive/hund//hu:nd//hawnd/‘hound’ possessive/hund-es/ /hu:nd-  s/ /hawnd-z/‘hound’s’ dative/hund-e/ /hu:nd-  / /hawnd/‘hound’ PluralOld EMiddle EModern Espelling nominative/hund-as/ /hu:nd-  s/ /hawnd-z/‘hounds’ obejctive/hund-as/ /hu:nd-  s/ /hawnd-z/‘hounds’ possessive/hund-a/ /hu:nd-  / /hawnd-z/‘hounds’’ dative/hund-um/ /hu:nd-  / /hawnd-z/‘hounds’

21.  Apart from the loss of cases, analogy plays a role for morphological change: A : B= C : D a.screamscreameddreamdreamed (dreamt) b.finefinedshineshined (shone)

22.  When two languages contact, borrowing happens.  The borrowing part might be lexicon, morphological patterns, or even in phonetic inventories.  The science to study the origins of lexicon is etymology, which is a branch of historical linguistics.

23. Latin history genius private promote quiet legal Italian design balcony pizza stanza violin Spanish barbecue alligator banana potato canoe coca French authority bill crown dean estate felon government jury mystery nation obedience parson state religion French(related to meals) supper dinner feast taste appetite toast beef mutton pork By translation drama comedy tragedy Greeks system critic choas anonymous

24. Celtic London Thames Winchester whisky Dutch leak yacht German quartz noodle Indian squash skunk raccoon hickory pecan hominy

25. French (for-) forward foreman foreland Greeks (-al) arrival oriental

26.  Two syntactic change from Old English to Modern English: (a)Middle EModern E SOVSVO Ex: Heohine l  rde ShehimadvisedSheadvisedhim (b)Middle E (Time of Shakespeare) Modern E V. + notAux + not + V. Ex: I deny it not.I don’t deny it. Forbid him not.Don’t forbid him.

27. Semantic changeBroadeningNarrowingShift

28.  Vocabulary whose semantic meaning was broadened. Original meaningBroadened meaning companion someone who eats bread with you anyone who is with you thinga public assemblyan entity of any kind birdsmall fowlall the birds with feathers

29.  Also called semantic reduction, which means the meaning of a word is now reduced. Original meaningReduced meaning Houndany kind of doga hunting breed Meatfoodflesh of an animal Deerany animals or beastsa kind of animal

30.  Some words have entirely lost their original meanings. Instead, they are meant something else. Original meaningShifted meaning immoralnot customaryunethical niceinnocentgood squirepages or servantsgentleman sillyhappysomething stupid

31. 2-1. What does language change mean? How many aspects would it possibly change? 2-2. What is sound change? Please classify the patterns of sound change. 2-3. What is assimilation in sound change? Please sort the patterns by direction and quality. 2-4. What is dissimilation? What sound change would result from dissimilation? 2-5. What kind of sound change is called splitting? 2-6. What kind of sound change is called fusion? 2-7. What morphological changes have occurred from Old English to Modern English? 2-8. What is the difference in terms of syntactic structure between Middle and Modern English? 2-9. What types of change would occur in semantics? 2-10. What is etymology? 2-11. Please list three English words originated from Latin. 2-12. Please list three English words originated from Italian. 2-13 Please list three English words originated from German. 2-14 Please list three English words originated from Greeks. 2-15 Please list three English words originated from French.

32. 3.1 Proto Indo-European Language 3.2 Grmm’s law 3.3 Neogrammarism

33.  Sir William Jones (1746-1794) found that there were a lot of similarities among Latin, Greek, German, and English.  Comparative linguistics: Historical linguists attempted to reconstruct PIE(Proto Indo-European) based on a comparison of Latin, Greeks, Sanskrit, German, etc.  Reconstruction: The way adopted for the combining of each fragment of sound, morphological or syntactic structure into a whole picture of what a dead language looks like.  To judge whether languages are cognates, the basis lies in systematic correspondences in phonetics, semantics, morphology, and syntax.

34.  There are phonetic correspondences among Latin, Greeks, Sanskrit, and English: EnglishLatinGreeksSanskrit a. fatherpater pita  footped-pod- pa  d b. threetrestreistrayas thintenuistanaostanus c. houndkaniskyonsivan hundredkentumkekatonsatan EnglishLatinGreeksSanskrit a. fppp fppp b. th (  ) ttt th (  ) ttt c. hkks hkks

35. *p ＞ f *t ＞   *k ＞ h [*] is a specific technique representing the proto-from. [>] is used for “becoming.”  Q: Why only these three sounds underwent sound change? [p, t, k] → [-continuent, -voiced] [f, , h] → [+continuent, -voiced] only one feature changed: [-continuent] ＞ [+continuent]

36.  The tenet of Neogrammarism: sound change is regular, and without any exception at the same time, under the same environments, and in the same area.

37. 3-1. What does PIE stand for? 3-2. What is comparative linguistics? 3-3. What is Grimm’s Law? 3-4. What are cognates? On what conditions can language be called cognates? 3-5. What is Neogrammarism? What is their basic belief?

38. 4.1 Comparative reconstruction 4.2 Internal reconstruction

39.  Three steps: (a) verifying the cognate languages (b) sorting out the correspondences in sound, morphology, or syntax (c) Trying to decide which form should be the proto-form.

40.  Mandarin, Southern Min, and Hakka are cognate languages, because they belong to the Han (Chinese) language family. MandrinS. MinHakkaglossary huahueifaflower hua fabright huhofutiger huhofuEach other huai faichest

41.  Two principles for deciding which form is the proto-form: majority principle and the plausibility principle. MandrinS. MinHakkaglossary huahueifaflower hua fabright huhofutiger huhofuEach other huai faichest hu is the majority, so the proto- form might be *h

42.  Two principles for deciding which form is the proto-form: majority principle and the plausibility principle. MandrinS. MinHakkaglossary huahueifaflower hua fabright huhofutiger huhofuEach other huai faichest [u] is of [+labial ] [h] is of [+continuent] → [+labial, +continuent], the reasonable segment is [f]

43.  Reconstruction of a proto-form can also be achieved in lieu of internal comparison. Ex: sin [s  n] vs. sing [s  ]  There was no [n] after velars [k, g] in Middle English  [  ] of Modern English was derived from *n.

44. 4-1. What is linguistic reconstruction? 4-2. Please give the steps for comparative reconstruction. 4-3. What is the majority principle in proto-form reconstruction? 4-4. What is the plausibility principle in proto-form reconstruction? 4-5. What is internal reconstruction?