1. Arousal

2. Definition – “The level of readiness to perform.”
Arousal.
Definition – “The level of readiness to perform.”
-The motivation of a performer to direct behaviour in a particular manner.
-Arousal can affect performers both positively and negatively.
-It can also affect the performer physiologically (somatic) – e.g. increase in sweating/heart rate or psychologically (cognitive) e.g. thought process.
-The level of arousal is controlled by R.A.S. (The reticular activating system).
-The R.A.S. identifies the amount of stimulation which enters the body and initiates a suitable response.
-The R.A.S. consists of a number of brain cells situated in the brain stem.
-A performer should be able to control arousal levels to maintain an optimum level.
-This ensures that decision making and concentration are not negatively affected.

3. The Drive Theory of Arousal.
-The Drive Theory suggests a linear relationship between arousal and performance.
-Promoted in 1943 by Hull.
-Hull stated that as the level of arousal increases so too does the level of performance.
-Spence and Spence took the drive theory to another level and stated that:
-As arousal levels increase the performers’ dominant habit/response would become evident.
P=f (HxD)
Where:
P= Performance
F= Function
H= Dominant Habit
D= Drive/Arousal

4. -Spence and Spence suggested that arousal effects are linked to:
-The nature of the task.
-The experience of the performer involved.
-Therefore, as arousal increases:
-An experienced performer would complete a skill well because he/she has a well learnt dominant habit.
BUT
-An inexperienced performer would complete a skill less well because he/she does not have a well learnt dominant habit.
-A dominant habit can be defined as “the typical behaviour pattern of an individual in the execution of a task”.

5. -Drive theory is closely linked to Social Facilitation.
-Social Facilitation is the “influence of the presence of others on performance”.
-This influence may be positive (experienced performers).
-Or negative (inexperienced performers).
-The main criticism of drive theory is that it does not explain why highly skilled performers sometimes make mistakes in highly pressurised situations e.g. a professional footballer missing a penalty.
-The drive theory does not distinguish between different types of arousal e.g. somatic (physiological) or cognitive (psychological).

6. Inverted U Theory.
-The Inverted U theory of arousal was suggested in 1908 by Yerkes and Dodson.
-The Inverted U theory suggests an optimal arousal level for maximum performance.

7. -The Inverted U theory works better than the Drive theory in explaining why more experienced performers can make mistakes/perform poorly.
-Over arousal results in over stimulation of the brain which affects the control of skilled motor responses and decision making.
-This over stimulation takes up some of the processing capacity of the brain with self doubt/unnecessary information.
-This affects the quality of skill delivery.
-Different arousal levels may be required for different skills/situations within an activity e.g. a hockey player may have to make a tackle (high arousal) and immediately after take a penalty shot (low arousal).

8. Factors to consider when determining the Optimum level of Arousal.
The Nature of the task.
-Complex/fine skills require a lower level of arousal e.g. snooker/archery/darts/putting.
-Gross/simple skills require a higher level of arousal e.g. weightlifting/shot putting/rugby

9. Skill level of the Performer.
-Experienced performers can cope better at higher arousal levels than beginners.
-For example, a novice footballer may become over aroused when faced with a defender because he/she needs all their concentration to be focused on basic skills.
-A more experienced player is able to execute skills under pressure.

10. The Personality of the Performer.
-More extrovert performers seem to cope with higher arousal levels better than introvert performers.
The Disadvantage of the Inverted U theory.
-The Inverted U theory fails to explain how a performer may be over aroused during performance yet still recover to compete effectively.

11. The Zone of Optimal Functioning.
-In 1980, Hanin, proposed that performers have a zone of optimal functioning (in the zone).
-The zone of optimal functioning is an extension of the Inverted U theory and suggest that there is an optimal area of maximum attention focus as opposed to a point of optimal arousal.
-Every performer will have his or her own individual zone of optimal functioning.
The zone of optimal functioning differs according to the task and the individual i.e. a fine control task requires a low arousal zone e.g. archery shot.
-A gross control task requires a high arousal zone e.g. rugby tackle.

12. Advantages Disadvantages -Movements become effortless.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Zone of Optimal Functioning.
Advantages
-Movements become effortless.
-Quick decision making.
-Total Control.
-Correct cue selection.
-Focused on task.
-Not distracted by audience/opposition.
-A feeling of calm despite pressure.
-A belief in a positive result.
Disadvantages
-Does not differentiate between cognitive and somatic anxiety.
-Some investigators have shown that there is no significant difference in performance whether performers are in or out of their zone.

13. The Catastrophe Theory.
-The Catastrophe theory was suggested by Hardy and Frazey in 1987.
-The Catastrophe theory has some similarities to the Inverted U theory.
-The Catastrophe theory states that increased cognitive arousal will improve performance up to a given optimal point.

14. An example of Catastrophe theory from Sport.
-In a training situation, a gymnast may have a low level of arousal and perform routines perfectly.
-In competition he/she may become over aroused.
-This causes a reduction in performance levels, decision making is detrimentally affected and mistakes are made.
-The gymnast may recover, return to an optimal level of arousal and performance will improve.
-OR, the gymnast’s level of arousal may continue to rise, performance deteriorates further and a Catastrophe ensues.

15. -As performers improve a coach can?
Peak Flow Experience.
Definition – “A state in which performance is at its highest level, achieved effortlessly, without thought and in complete confidence.”
-Peak flow experience suggests that the experience of “being in the zone” is achieved best when the level of the task involved is appropriate to the performer’s level of skill.
-A performer who is face with a task that he/she believes is beyond their capability would become anxious.
-If the task is too easy for the performer they would become bored and de-motivated.
-Peak flow is achieved when skilled performers are given a task that is just beyond their capability.
-As performers improve a coach can?
gradually increase the skill level of the task.
-Confidence levels will increase as tasks are learnt.
-However, tasks should not be set at too high a level so as not to cause de-motivation.
-A coach should keep the balance of task difficulty between belief and ability.