1. Memory Management in Windows and Linux &

2. Windows Memory Management Virtual memory manager (VMM) –Executive component responsible for managing memory Lazy allocation –Avoid allocating memory until necessary Prefetching –Move pages from disk to main memory before they are needed Pagefile –Stores pages that do not fit in main memory –Windows XP supports up to 16 pagefiles

3. Memory Organization 32-bit virtual address space –Windows 64-Bit Edition has 64-bit address space. –4GB virtual address space per process User space vs. System space –Process can access only user space –VMM stores page tables and other data in system space –2GB user space, 2GB system space 4KB pages

4. Memory Organization Two-level hierarchical memory map –Page directory table Page directory entries (PDEs) point to page table One page directory table per process Location in page directory register –Page table Page table entries (PTEs) point to page frames –Page frame Contains page of data TLB (translation lookaside buffer) accelerates address translation

5. . Virtual address translation

6. Memory Allocation

7. Page frame states

8. Page Replacement Process

9. Linux Memory Management Memory manager supports 32- and 64-bit addresses Also supports NUMA (nonuniform memory access architectures) To allow Linux to scale from desktops and workstations, to servers and supercomputers

10. Page Table Organization

11. Memory Organization Linux uses paging exclusively –Often implemented using a single page size –On 32-bit systems, kernel can address 4GB of data On 64-bit systems, the kernel supports up to 2 petabytes of data –Three levels of page tables Page global directory Page middle directory Page tables –On systems that support only two levels of page tables, page middle directory contains exactly one entry Virtual address space organized into virtual memory areas to group information with same permissions (similar to segments)

12. Linux on the IA-32 architecture Kernel attempts to reduce overhead due to TLB flushing on context switch Divides each 4GB address space into a 3GB region for process data and instructions and a 1GB address space for kernel data and instructions Most of the kernel’s address space is directly mapped to main memory so that it can access information belonging to any process

13. Kernel virtual address space mapping

14. Memory Organization Memory zones –DMA memory: first 16MB of main memory Kernel attempts to make memory available in this region for legacy hardware –Normal memory: between 16MB and 896MB on the IA-32 architecture Stores user data and most kernel data –High memory: > 896MB on the IA-32 architecture Contains memory that the kernel does not permanently map to its address space Bounce buffer –Allocates low memory temporarily for I/O –Data is “bounced” to high memory after I/O completes

15. Physical memory zones on the IA- 32

16. Page Replacement Page replacement is performed independently for each page zone –Algorithm is a variant of the clock page-replacement algorithm Two linked lists per zone –Active list contains pages that have been referenced recently –Inactive list contains pages that have been used less recently Page enters system at the head of the inactive list, referenced bit set If the page is active or inactive and its referenced bit is off, the bit is turned on –Ensures that recently referenced pages are not selected for replacement If page is inactive and is being referenced for the second time (referenced bit is on), page is moved to head of the active list, referenced bit is cleared –Allows the kernel to distinguish between referenced pages that have been accessed once and those that have been accessed more than once recently –The latter are placed in the active list so they are not selected for replacement

17. Page-replacement system overview

18. Swapping kswapd (the kernel swap daemon) –Periodically frees page frames by flushing dirty pages to disk –Swaps pages from the tail of the inactive list First determines if the page has a valid entry in the swap cache –Enables clean pages to be freed immediately Cannot free a page frame if –Page is shared kswapd must unmap multiple references to the page Reverse mapping improves efficiency –Page is dirty kswapd must flush it to disk Performed asynchronously by pdflush –Page is locked (e.g., currently under I/O) kswapd must wait until page is unlocked