1. Cell Division
Mitosis and Meiosis

2. Cell Cycle
Encompasses the time between the creation of a new cell and that cell’s division.
Cell Division: the splitting of one cell into two.
The process that makes growth and reproduction possible for any organism.
Each division different depended upon if the cell is eukaryotic or prokaryotic

3. Continue Two major phases
1- Interphase: Preparation for cell division.
Three phases:
G1 phase (Growth 1): Cell growth – Cell organelles are formed within the cell.
S phase (Synthesis): DNA is synthesized
G2 phase (Growth 2): Second period of cell growth, during which the cell prepares for the division.
Example: Some cells, including many nerve cells, are programmed never divide. These cells are said to be in G0 or resting phase.
2- Mitosis: Division of Nucleus
Four phases of mitosis (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase)
Cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm and cell membrane

4. Cell Cycle Control All of the cell cycle are controlled by checkpoints
There are three checkpoints:
Checkpoints
Occurs at
Details G1
The end of the phase
If conditions are not suitable for replication, the cell will not proceed to S phase but will instead enter a resting phase G0 G2
If conditions are not suitable, transition to the M phase will be delayed.
If DNA is damaged, cell division will be delayed to allow time for DNA repair M
Between metaphase and anaphase stages of mitosis
If the chromosomes are aligned properly and ready for division, the cell will proceed from metaphase to anaphase, during which it will divide. If the chromosome are not aligned properly, the anaphase stage will be delayed

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Triggers at each checkpoint assess the cell’s readiness to proceed to the next stage.
Checkpoints makes sure proper number of chromosomes and type of chromosomes & organelles

6. Example of Checkpoint
Example: Malignant cancer are deadly, in part, because they undergo unregulated cell division, which enables them to spread rapidly throughout the body. Scientists have discovered one reason behind this uncontrolled growth: a defective p53 gene. Proteins produced by the p53 gene assess the cell’s DNA for damage at the G1 checkpoint. If the DNA is intact, cell division proceeds. If the DNA is damaged, however, the p53 proteins halt cell division until the DNA is repaired or the cell is destroyed. If the p53 gene itself has been damaged, as in the case of cells that are cancerous the G1 checkpoint will fail and a malignant cancer cell may develop.

7. Other Cell Division Controls
Density-dependent inhibition: When a certain density of cells is reached, growth of the cells will slow or stop because there are not enough raw materials for the growth and survival of more cells.
Example: Cancer cells can lose this inhibition and grow out of control.
Growth Factors: Some cells will not divide if certain factors are absent.

8. Continue with Other Cell Division Control
Cyclins: is a protein that acccumlates during G1, S, G2, of the cell cycle
Protein Kinase: is a protein that control other proteins through the addition of phosphate groups.

9. Chromosomes
In eukaryotic cells, DNA and associated proteins are wrapped together in packages called chromosomes.
DNA in eukaryotic cells is wrapped around the proteins to form a complex called chromatin
Throughout the cell’s life, the chromatin becomes is loosely packed within the nucleus.
Chromatin can not been seen by humans.
Think a rubber band ball.

10. Continue…
During cell division, however, the chromatin becomes highly condensed and folds up to form condensed chromosomes. (This is when we can see it).
DNA is always replicated, or copied before becoming condensed .
The x shape associated with chromosomes actually represents a replicated chromosome consisting of two identical sister chromatids joined at the centromere
Example: Prokaryotes do not have chromosomes. Prokaryotic DNA exist in a single loop

11. Chromosome Number
Refers to the number of chromosomes within each cell of an organism.
Most animals possess two nonidentical version of every chromosome. These are known as homologous chromosomes.
Homologous chromosomes have the same size, shape, and function but may have slightly different versions of most genes, the basic unit of hereditary information.

12. Continue…
Cells with two sets of every chromosomes between their homologous chromosomes are diploid (2n), while cells with one set of every chromosome are haploid (1n)
Diploid: Somatic (Body) Cells
Haploid: Gamete (Sex) Cells

13. Human Chromosome Number
Humans has 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs
2n indicates diploid
2n= 46 (2 sets of 23 chromosomes)
1n indicates haploid
1n=23 (1 set of 23 chromosomes)
Egg and sperms are haploid
The union of sperm and egg that occurs during fertilization restores the chromosomes number of the resulting embryo to 2n = 46

14. Mitosis
Is the method of eukaryotic cell division that produces two genetically identical cells.
All cells in an organisms, except for sperm and eggs, are produced by the process of mitosis.
Mitosis progresses along five stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis

15. Prophase
Duplicated chromosomes condense and become visible as distinct sister chromatids.
Nuclear envelope breaks down
Centromeres move toward the poles of the cell.
The mitotic spindle, which is made of microtubules attaches to a specialized structure called the kinetochore, located at the centromere of each replicated chromosomes.

16. Metaphase
Replicated chromosomes align at the equator, or metaphase plate, of the cell.
M&Ms (Metaphase Middle)

17. Anaphase
The sister chromatids separate and are moved toward opposite poles of the cell by the spindle.
As this happens, the cell begins to elongate toward the poles.

18. Telophase Mitotic spindle breaks down.
Nuclear envelope forms at each end of the cell, and the chromosomes within begin to unfold into chromatin.

19. Cytokinesis
The cytoplasm and organelles are evenly divided between the two new cells during cytokinesis, completing the process of cells division.
Plants and animals cells differ in cytokinesis
Plants, a cell plate is formed as vesicles containing cell membrane materials fuse together along the equator of the cell.
Animals, a ring of microfilaments contracts in the center of the elongated cell, producing a cleavage furrow that eventually pinches off the two cells.

20. Example of cytokinesis
Plant Cell
Animal Cell

21. Cell Cycle

22. Binary Fission
Occurs in prokaryotes because have a single double-stranded loop of DNA.
Occurs in four steps
1. DNA is replicated
2. Cell doubles in size
3. Cell membrane grows into the center of the cell, between the two circles of DNA, dividing the cell in two.
4. Two cell seperate, and a cell wall forms around each new cell.

23. Meiosis “Me” likes Sex (Cells)
The method of cell division that takes place in sexually reproducing organisms specifically for the creation of gametes– sperm and egg cells.
Production four haploid cells, each genetically different
Meiosis requires two rounds of cell division.

24. Continue…
Meiosis I: Homologous pairs of each chromosome join and might exchange genetic material. The homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles in the cell, at which point the cell separates, resulting in two cells. Each cell contains half the chromosome number of the original diploid cell. Each chromosome remains in the duplicated state and is made up of two sister chromatids

25. Continue…
Meiosis II: The second stage of meiosis follows similar steps as mitosis in the creation of two more cells. Chromosomes do not replicate between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
The result is four haploid cells genetically different from one another.

26. Prophase I
The most important events in prophase I are synapsis and crossing over
Synapsis: occurs when the two homologous chromosomes condense and combine to form complexes called tetrads
Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material that takes place between these homologous chromosomes along several junctions known as chiasmata (place where crossing over occurs)

27. Metaphase I
The tetrads align along the metaphase plate of the cell.

28. Anaphase I
The homologous chromosome of each tetrad and are pulled toward opposite poles of the cell by the spindle.
The side of the cell toward which a homologous chromosome is pulled a random, depending only on the orientation of the tetrad.
The independent assortment of chromosome for each cell is result of this random mix of chromosomes derived from that organism’s parent

29. Telophase I Identical to telophase in mitosis.
The cell continues to elongate, and the mitotic spindle breaks down.
A new nuclear envelope forms at each end of the cell the chromosomes within unfold into chromatin

30. Example
Crossing over and the independent assortment of chromosomes during meiosis are two forces that help to produce genetic variation . By independent assortment alone, a single human can produce more than 8 million genetically different gametes. When crossing over is also considered, the possible number of genetically different is nearly limitless.

31. Cytokinesis I
Cytokinesis is very similar to mitosis divide cytoplasm and organelles.
Two genetically different haploid cells have been produced.
Each chromosome is still in the duplicated state and is made up of two sister chromatids.
Because crossing over during prophase I, the sister chromatids are no longer identical.

33. Meiosis II Meiosis II occurs right after Cytokinesis I
There is no Interphase (therefore No DNA Replication)

34. Prophase II
Chromosome condense within haploid cell condense, and the spindle attaches to the kinetochore of each chromosome.
The nuclear envelope breaks down and the centrosomes move toward the poles of the cell.

35. Metaphase II
Chromosomes align along the center of the metaphase plate

36. Anaphase II
The sister chromatids separate and are moved toward opposite poles of the cell by the spindle.
The cell begins to elongate toward the poles

37. Telophase II
The cell continues to elongate and the mitotic spindle breaks down.
A new nuclear envelope forms at each end of the cell and the chromosomes within may unfold into chromatin.

38. Cytokinesis II
The cytoplasm and organelles are divided between the two cells, completing the process of cell division.
By the end of this stage, four genetically different haploid cells have been produced.

39. Sex Cells (Gametes)
Meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells.
Males haploid cells are sperms
All four sperm can be used in sexual reproduction.
Females haploid cells are 1 egg and 3 polar bodies
Only the 1 egg can be used in sexual reproduction
The three polar bodies will be recycled back into the body.

42. Example
The process of meiosis results in four genetically different haploid cells. In animals, these haploid cells develop into gametes, a sperm in males and an egg in females. Fertilization is the process by which a sperm and egg fuse together. The resulting zygote is diploid, with half the chromosomes coming from the mother and other half coming from the father. The processes of meiosis and fertilization both account for the genetic variation found in animals of the same species. Meiosis is responsible for creating gametes whose genetic material varies from that of the parent. Fertilization then combines the genetic material of the two parents to produce the genetic material of the offspring

43. Life Cycles
Life Cycle is the sequence of events that make up the reproductive cycle of an organisms.
Alternation of generations: Plants sometimes exist as a diploid organism and other times as a haploid cell.
Two haploid gametes combine to form a diploid zygote, which divides mitotically to produce.
Sporophyte: undergoes under meiosis to produce a haploid spore
Gametophytes: Mitotic division leads to production of haploid multicellular organisms.
Produces haploid gametes, which form diploid zygotes

44. Diagram of Alternation of Generation

45. Human Life Cycle
The only haploid cells present in this life cycle are gametes formed during meiosis.
Two haploid gametes combine during fertilization to produce a diploid zygote.
Mitotic division then leads to formation of the diploid multicellular organisms.
Meiotic division later produces haploid gametes.

46. Example of Human Life Cycle

47. Life Cycle of a Fungi
Fungi are haploid organisms with the zygote being the only diploid form.
Like humans, the gametes for fungi are haploid (n), and fertilization yield a diploid zygote.
Instead of dividing by mitosis, the zygote divides by meiosis to form a haploid organisms.
Gametes are formed by mitosis, not meiosis—the organism is already haploid, before forming the gametes.

48. Life Cycle of a Fungi

49. We will discuss more about the life cycles as we get into the individual kingdoms.