1. The Milky Way – Our Galaxy

2. Exam II A: 25 or better B: 20 or better C: 17 or better D: 15 or better F: 13 or below Average: 20.7

3. Solutions to Exam III (updated) 1a,2b,3b,4d,5e,6a,7b,8c,9a,10c,11d,12a, 13c,14c,15c,16c,17b,18d,19c,20a,21b,22c, 23c,24e,25b,26d,27b,28c,29e,30a,31d,32b

4. Toughest Questions Hydrostatic Equilibrium Temperature of Sun’s surface Star of absolute mag 4.6, apparent magnitude 3.2

5. Galaxies – Island Universes A historic tour of the discovery of the dwindling significance of humans in the universe: From the center of the universe towards the edge of an average galaxy amongst 100 billion others

6. How do we know where we are? “Obviously” we are living on a flat Earth at the center of the universe, as a quick look tells us: –The stars, Sun, Moon and planets rotate us –There is no apparent curvature of the ground –The Milky Way is a band that surrounds us –There are no signs for any movement of the Earth (like wind, or forces throwing us off)

7. Logic to the Rescue How do we avoid these wrong conclusions? –Sound data –Flawed interpretation/reasoning  Further observations are necessary to decide! Do we have to question everything? –Yes, in principle. –The signature of genius is to ask the right question, not necessarily to answer them.

8. Exploring our own Island Universe: The Milky Way A galaxy is a huge collection of stars, gas, dust, neutron stars, and black holes, isolated from others and held together by gravity

9. Our view of the Milky Way Appears as a milky band of light across the sky A small telescope reveals that it is composed of many stars (Galileo again!) Our knowledge of the Milky Way comes from a combination of observation and comparison to other galaxies

10. How do we know? Question: How can we say anything about our Milky Way, if we cannot see it from outside? Obviously a bogus picture of our milky way!

11. Enter: the Genius William Herschel (XVIII century) Simple model: –Assumed all stars have the same absolute brightness –Counts stars as a function of apparent magnitude –Brighter stars closer to us; fainter stars further away –Cut off in brightness corresponds to a cut off at a certain distance. Conclusion: there are no stars beyond a certain distance

12. Herschel’s Findings Stars thinned out very fast at right angles to Milky Way In the plane of the Milky Way the thinning was slower and depended upon the direction in which he looked Flaws: –Observations made only in visible spectrum –Did not take into account absorption by interstellar gas and dust

13. Discovering other Island Universes Data: Lots of nebulous spots known in the nightsky Questions: What are they? All the same? Different things? Need more observations!  Build bigger telescopes

14. Famous Telescopes - Herschel Herschel detected Uranus (1781) (Uranus is visible with the unaided eye)

15. Famous Telescopes – Lord Ross 72 inch Reflector built during potato famine in Ireland Largest Telescope until Mt Wilson (1917)

16. The first nebula discovered to have spiral structure: M51

17. Lord Rosse (1845): M51

18. Hubble Space Telescope (2007): M51

19. M99 is a spiral, too! Q: do we live in a spiral? Q: Are we in the center of the spiral? Most probable answer: No!

20. Enter: next genius Harlow Shapley used variable stars, e.g. RR Lyrae stars, to map the distribution of globular clusters in the galaxy Found a spherical distribution about 30 kpc (30,000 pc) across –This is the true size of the galaxy Sun is (naturally!) not at the center – it’s about 26,000 ly out

21. Standing on the shoulders of Giants Shapley used methods developed by others to measure the distance to globulars Cepheid variables show luminosity-period correlations discovered by Henrietta Leavitt Shapley single-handedly increase the size of the universe tenfold!

22. Structure of the Galaxy

23. An observer far outside our galaxy would best describe our galaxy and the Sun's position in it as a … a) disk of stars with our Solar System 2/3 towards the edge. b) disk of stars with a bulge containing our Solar System. c) sphere of stars centered on our Solar System. d) sphere of stars with our Solar System near the edge.

24. Intra-galactic Dynamics Three main parts of a galaxy: –Bulge (center of galaxy) –Disk (rotating around center) –Halo (orbiting around bulge with randomly inclined orbits)

25. Properties of Bulge, Disk and Halo Disk Halo Bulge Highly flattened spherical football-shaped young and old stars only old stars young and old stars has Gas and dust none lots in center Star formation none since 10 billion yrs in inner regions White colored, reddish yellow-white blue spiral arms

26. An up-to-date “Reconstruction”

27. Activity: Milky Way Scales Form groups of 3-5 Work on the questions on the handout Hold on the the sheets until we talked about your findings Turn them in with your names on (one sheet per group)

28. Other Galaxies: Hubble supersedes Shapley Edwin Hubble identified single stars in the Andromeda nebula (“turning” it into a galaxy) Measured the distance to Andromeda to be 1 million Ly (modern value: 2.2 mill. Ly) Conclusion: it is 20 times more distant than the milky way’s radius  Extragalacticity!  Shapley’s theory falsified!

29. Q: How many galaxies are there? Hubble Deep Field Project –100 hour exposures over 10 days –Covered an area of the sky about 1/100 the size of the full moon Probably about 100 billion galaxies visible to us!

31. About 1,500 galaxies in this patch alone Angular size ~ 2 minutes of arc

32. Other Galaxies there are ~ 100 billion galaxies in the observable Universe measure distances to other galaxies using the period- luminosity relationship for Cepheid variables Type I supernovae also used to measure distances –Predictable luminosity – a standard candle Other galaxies are quite distant –Andromeda (M31), a nearby (spiral) galaxy, is 2 million light-years away and comparable in size to Milky Way “Island universes” in their own right

33. Q: How does our galaxy look like from the outside? Probably like others, so observe them!

34. Hubble Classification Scheme Edwin Hubble (~1924) grouped galaxies into four basic types: –Spiral –Barred spiral –Elliptical –Irregular There are sub-categories as well

35. Spirals (S) All have disks, bulges, and halos Type Sa: large bulge, tightly wrapped, almost circular spiral arms Type Sb: smaller bulge, more open spiral arms Type Sc: smallest bulge, loose, poorly defined spiral arms

36. Barred Spirals (SB) Possess an elongated “bar” of stars and interstellar mater passing through the center

37. Elliptical (E) No spiral arms or clear internal structure Essentially all halo Vary in size from “giant” to “dwarf” Further classified according to how circular they are (E0–E7)

38. S0/SB0 Intermediate between E7 and Sa Ellipticals with a bulge and thin disk, but no spiral arms

39. Test: What type is this galaxy? Spiral Barred Spiral Irregular Elliptical

40. And this one? Spiral Barred Spiral Irregular Elliptical

41. Type? Spiral Barred Spiral Irregular Elliptical

42. Here’s a weird one! Spiral Elliptical Barred Spiral Irregular

43. Solutions Sb (Andromeda Galaxy M31) E2 (Elliptic Galaxy) SBb (Barred spiral galaxy) Ir II (Irregular galaxy M82)

44. Q: How do we know we live in a Spiral Galaxy? After correcting for absorption by dust, it is possible to plot location of O- and B- (hot young stars) which tend to be concentrated in the spiral arms Radio frequency observations reveal the distribution of hydrogen (atomic) and molecular clouds Evidence for –galactic bulge –spiral arms

45. Rotation of the Galaxy Stars near the center rotate faster; those near the edges rotate slower (Kepler) The Sun revolves at about 250 km/sec around the center Takes 200-250 million years to orbit the galaxy – a “galactic year”

46. How do spiral arms persist?  Why don’t the “curl up”?

47. “Spiral Density Waves” A spiral compression wave (a shock wave) moves through the Galaxy Triggers star formation in the spiral arms Explains why we see many young hot stars in the spiral arms

48. Density (Shock) Waves

49. The Mass of the Galaxy Can be determined using Kepler’s 3 rd Law –Solar System: the orbital velocities of planets determined by mass of Sun –Galaxy: orbital velocities of stars are determined by total mass of the galaxy contained within that star’s orbit Two key results: –large mass contained in a very small volume at center of our Galaxy –Much of the mass of the Galaxy is not observed consists neither of stars, nor of gas or dust extends far beyond visible part of our galaxy (“dark halo”)

50. Galaxy Masses Rotation curves of spiral galaxies comparable to milky way Masses vary greatly

51. The Missing Mass Problem Dark Matter is dark at all wavelengths, not just visible light The Universe as a whole consists of up to 25% of Dark Matter!  Strange! What is it? –Brown dwarfs? –Black dwarfs? –Black holes? –Neutrinos? –Other exotic subatomic particles? Actually: Most of the universe (70%) consists of Dark Energy  Even stranger!

52. Missing Mass Problem Keplerian Motion: more distance from center  less gravitational pull  slower rotational speed Actual data Hypothetical Keplerian motion

53. Galaxy Formation Not very well understood –More complicated than stellar formation, and harder to observe Formation of galaxies begins after Big Bang Different than star formation because galaxies may collide and merge

54. Galaxy Formation Galaxies are probably built up by mergers –Contrast to break up of clouds in star formation Our own Milky Way is eating up the neighboring Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy

55. Galaxy Mergers Start with high density of small proto-galaxies Galaxies merge and turn into bigger galaxies Actual photo (HST): lots of small galaxies

56. Galaxy Interaction Galaxy Collision: NGC2207 vs. IC2163

57. Collision between NGC 4038 and NGC 4039

58. The Tully-Fisher Relation A relation between the rotation speed of a spiral galaxy and its luminosity The more mass a galaxy has  the brighter it is  the faster it rotates  the wider the spectral lines are Measuring rotation speed allows us to estimate luminosity; comparing to observed (apparent) brightness then tells us the distance

59. Active Galaxies

60. Types of Active Galaxies Radio galaxies: radiate a long radio frequencies Seyfert Galaxies: between normal and active, compact core Quasars: quasi stellar objects, very far away, maybe early stage of galaxy Note: most active galaxies look ‘normal’ in visible frequencies

61. Seyfert Galaxies Look like normal spiral galaxies Energy output mostly in IR and radio frequencies Emitted from small region: nucleus of galaxy Nucleus of Seyfert galaxy 10,000 times brighter than of normal galaxy NGC 5728

62. Energy Output Active galaxies emit most of their energy in radio frequencies

63. Quasars Quasi-stellar objects Appear like stars on photographs Very distant objects Very high luminosity Essentially a quasar is a galaxy with exceptionally bright core Might be young galaxies

64. A typical Quasar Very distant  Very faint  Appears star- like

65. Beyond the Galactic Scale – Clusters of Galaxies The Local GroupThe Virgo Cluster

66. Superclusters

67. Beyond Superclusters Strings, filaments, voids Reflect structure of the universe close to the Big Bang Largest known structure: the Great Wall (70 Mpc  200 Mpc!)