1. Scientific Computing Algorithm Convergence and Root Finding Methods

2. Algorithm Convergence Definition: We say that a numerical algorithm to solve some problem is convergent if the numerical solution generated by the algorithm approaches the actual solution as the number of steps in the algorithm increases. Definition: Stability of an algorithm refers to the ability of a numerical algorithm to reach the correct solution, even if small errors are introduced during the execution of the algorithm.

3. Algorithm Stability Stable algorithm: Small changes in the initial data produce small changes in the final result (Also, called Insensitive or Well-Conditioned) Unstable or conditionally stable algorithm: Small changes in the initial data may produce large changes in the final result (Also called Sensitive or Ill-Conditioned)

4. Algorithm Stability Condition Number: The condition number of a problem is the ratio of the relative change in a solution to the relative change of the input Want cond no to be small!

5. Algorithm Stability Example: Consider p(x) = x 5 – 10x 4 + 40x 3 – 80x 2 + 80x – 32. Note that p(x) = (x –2) 5 Does Matlab roots command use a stable algorithm?

6. Algorithm Stability Example: Use the fzero Matlab function. Does Matlab fzero command use a stable algorithm?

7. Algorithm Error Analysis To calculate convergence, we usually try to estimate the error in the numerical solution compared to the actual solution. We try to find out how fast this error is decreasing (or increasing!)

8. Algorithm Error Disaster!! Explosion of the Ariane 5 On June 4, 1996 an unmanned Ariane 5 rocket launched by the European Space Agency exploded just forty seconds after lift-off. The cause of the failure was a software error in the inertial guidance system. A 64 bit floating point number relating to the horizontal velocity of the rocket with respect to the platform was converted to a 16 bit signed integer. The number was larger than 32,768, the largest integer storeable in a 16 bit signed integer, and thus the conversion failed. (source http://ta.twi.tudelft.nl/users/vuik/wi211/disasters.html)

9. Algorithm Rate of Convergence To get an idea of how fast an algorithm convergences, we measure the rate at which the sequence of approximations generated by the algorithm converge to some value. Definition:

10. Algorithm Rate of Convergence Alternatively, we can consider how fast the error goes to zero from one iteration of the algorithm to the next. Definition: Let ε n be the error in the nth iteration of the algorithm. That is, ε n = |α n - α |. Definition: We say that the algorithm has linear convergence if |  n+1 | = C |  n | Definition: We say that the algorithm has quadratic convergence if |  n+1 | = C |  n | 2 Which convergence type is faster?

11. Finding Roots (Zeroes) of Functions Given some function f(x), find location x where f(x)=0. This is called a root (or zero) of f(x) For success we will need: – Starting position x 0, hopefully close to solution x – Well-behaved function f(x)

12. Problem: Determine the depth of an object in water without submerging it. x = depth of sphere in water Example 1 1-x x r r 1

13. Problem: Determine the depth of an object in water without submerging it. Sample material: Cork –> ρ/ρ w = 0.25 (Specific Gravity) Solution: We found that the solution required finding the zero of Example

14. Finding Roots (Zeroes) of Functions Notes: – There may be multiple roots of f(x). That is why we need to specify an initial guess of x 0. – If f(x) is not continuous, we may miss a root no matter what root-finding algorithm we try. – The roots may be real numbers or complex numbers. In this course we will consider only functions with real roots.

15. Finding Roots (Zeroes) of Functions What else can go wrong? Tangent point: very difficult to find Singularity: brackets don’t surround root Pathological case: infinite number of roots – e.g. sin(1/x)

16. Bisection method Simplest Root finding method. Based on Intermediate Value Theorem: If f(x) is continuous on [a, b] then for any y such that y is between f(a) and f(b) there is a c in [a, b] such that f(c) = y.

17. Bisection method Given points a and b that bracket a root, find x = ½ (a+ b) and evaluate f(x) If f(x) and f(b) have the same sign (+ or -) then b  x else a  x Stop when a and b are “close enough” If function is continuous, this will succeed in finding some root.

18. Bisection Matlab Function function v = bisection(f, a, b, eps) % Function to find root of (continuous) f(x) within [a,b] % Assumes f(a) and f(b) bracket a root k = 0; while abs(b-a) > eps*abs(b) x = (a + b)/2; if sign(f(x)) == sign(f(b)) b = x; else a = x; end k = k + 1; root = x; v = [root k]; end

19. Bisection Matlab Function f = inline('x^3-3*x^2+1') bisection(f, 1, 2, 0.01) ans = 0.6523 7.0000 bisection(f, 1, 2, 0.005) ans = 0.6543 8.0000 bisection(f, 1, 2, 0.0025) ans = 0.6533 9.0000 bisection(f, 1, 2, 0.00125) ans = 0.6528 10.0000 Is there a pattern?

20. Bisection Convergence Convergence rate: – Error bounded by size of [a… b] interval – Interval shrinks in half at each iteration – Therefore, error cut in half at next iteration: |  n+1 | = ½ |  n | – This is linear convergence

21. Root Finding Termination Let p n be the approximation generated by the nth iteration of a root-finding algorithm. How do we know when to stop? Bisection – uses a version of the second condition.

22. Practice Class Exercise: Determine the number of iterations needed to achieve an approximation to the solution of x 3 – 2x -1 = 0 lying within the interval [1.5, 2.0] and accurate to 10 -2. – Using the Bisection Method Estimate using theory, then try using Matlab