1. Language and Culture Prof. R. Hickey SoSe 2006 How language works
Lisa Stemmermann Hauptstudium TN or LN

2. Contents Introduction The discrete combinatorial system
The word-chain device
The phrase structure grammar
The sentence

3. Introduction Ferdinand de Saussure: “the arbitrariness of the sign”
conventional pairing of a sound with a meaning which is learned by the speakers in their childhood
Wilhelm v. Humboldt: language “makes infinite use of the media”
 a code to translate between orders of words and combinations of thoughts is used
 this code is called: generative grammar

4. Discrete combinatorial system
Grammar is an example of a “discrete combinatorial system”
= a finite number of discrete elements (words) are sampled, combined and permuted to create larger structures (sentences)
= an unlimited number of completely distinct combinations with an infinite range of properties

5. Discrete combinatorial system
There are two important consequences of the discrete combinatorial system:
1.) vastness of language
e.g. “There are many possibilities of…”
2.) a code which is autonomous from cognition
a) there are sentences which are not properly formed but make sense in a way
e.g. “This sentence no verb. This sentence has contains to verbs.”
b)there are sentences which are properly formed but do not make any sense
e.g. “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.”
 grammar and sense can be independent of each other

6. A word-chain device
Def.: It is a bunch of lists of words (or prefabricated phrases) and a set of directions for going from list to list. A processor builds a sentence by selecting a word from one list , then a word from another list, and so on. It is the simplest example of a discrete combinatorial system, since it is capable of creating an unlimited number of distinct combinations from a finite set of elements.
Some psychologists have suggested that human language is based on a huge word chain stored in the people’s brain.

7. Problem of the word-chain device
an English sentence is a completely different thing from a string of words chained together according to the transition probabilities of English
 well-formed but nonsense and vice versa
 people do not learn a language by recording which word follows which other word but by recording word categories (noun, verb, adjective,…) and a plan for the sentence that puts each word in a specific slot
! The word-chain devices are artificial combinatorial systems. The system of the human brain is a natural one. Therefore, sentences are no chains but trees.

8. The phrase structure grammar
NounPhrase: article/determiner (det.) + any number of adjectives (A) + noun (N)
 it is named after one special word (noun) that must be inside it: HEAD
in a realistic grammar, the NP is also used as the object of a preposition, in a prossessor phrase, as an indirect object,…
VerbPhrase: Verb (V) + NP
 it is named after one special word (verb) that must be inside it : HEAD
verbs can be divided into transitive and intransitive ones
verbs have the power to dictate how a sentence conveys who did what to whom

9. The phrase structure grammar
Sentence: NP + VP
role-players/arguments*: sets of players that interact with each other in a particular way
head + arguments = N-bar/V-bar
the subject (SPEC) is a special role-player, usually the causal agent if there is one
modifiers/adjuncts*
Prepositional Phrase

10. The phrase structure grammar
Adjective Phrase
X-Phrase : one pair of super-rules for the entire language, where the distinctions among nouns, verbs, prepositions, and adjectives are collapsed and all four are specified with a variable like “X”
*the role-player has to be closer to the head than the modifier is

11. Advantages
grouping words into phrases is also necessary to connect grammatical sentences with their proper meanings, chunks of mentalese
children do not have to learn a long list of rules but whether their particular language has the parameter value head-first (e.g.English) or head-last (e.g. Japanese)
! Be aware of ambiguities which come from the different ways in which the words can be joined up in a tree.
How does one find subjects and objects in a tree?
With the help of cases which are pre- or suffixes on the nouns
e.g. he, she, we for subject/ his, her, my for possessor role

12. The Sentence
A sentence must express some kind of meaning that does not clearly reside in its nouns and verbs but that embraces the entire combination and turns it into a proposition that can be true or false.
The head of a sentence is an auxiliary (= a word that expresses layers of meaning having to do with the truth, e.g. will, won’t, must, can, might,…), a so-called function word (in contrast to the content words)
Whereas the people add new content words, the function words form a closed club that resists new members.

13. The Sentence Every sentence has two phrase structures:
the deep structure= the verb dictates
the surface structure= the verb is where we actually hear it, a trace serves as a reminder of its role
Sentences can be changed, especially by putting an active sentence into a passive one. Phrases still retain their roles then.

14. Conclusion
Grammar is a form of mental software. Therefore, it is important to investigate and to learn languages.