Sociology Exam Review.

Sociology Exam Review

Questions per Chapter Chapter 1- 11 Sociological Perspective
Chapter 2-13 Sociological Investigation Chapter 3-13 Culture Chapter 5- 5 Socialization Chapter 6-10 Social Interaction Chapter 7-5 Groups/Organizations Chapter 8- 6 Sexuality Chapter 9-12 Deviance

“...The systematic study of human society ”
What Is Sociology? “...The systematic study of human society ” Systematic Scientific discipline that focuses attention on patterns of behavior Human society Group behavior is primary focus; how groups influence individuals and vice versa At the “heart of sociology” The sociological perspective which offers a unique view of society

The Sociological Perspective Peter Berger
Seeing the general in the particular Sociologists identify general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals. Seeing the strange in the familiar Giving up the idea that human behavior is simply a matter of what people decide to do Understanding that society shapes our lives

Sociological Perspective and Sociological Imagination
C. Wright Mills

C. Wright Mills’ Sociological Imagination
The power of the sociological perspective lies not just in changing individual lives but in transforming society. Society, not people’s personal failings, is the cause of social problems. The sociological imagination transforms personal troubles into public issues.

Sociological Theory Theory: a statement of how and why facts are related Explains social behavior to the real world Theoretical paradigm: A set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking Structural-functional Social-conflict Symbolic-interaction

Structural-Functional Theory
A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as a whole unit, composed of interrelated parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium Also known as functionalism and structural functionalism

Functional Analysis Focuses on Social Structure and Social Function
Structure- stable pattern of behavior Function: consequences of patterns for operation of society Argues that Social Order is based on Social Consensus

Social Functions Manifest Functions- Intended
Latent Functions- Unintended Dysfunctions- Problematic

Critical Evaluations of Functional Analysis
Tends to be conservative Tends to dismiss change-”systems” Overlooks the negative

Structural-Functional Paradigm
The basics A macro-level orientation, concerned with broad patterns that shape society as a whole Views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability Key elements: Social structure refers to any relatively stable patterns of social behavior found in social institutions. Social function refers to the consequences for the operation of society as a whole.

Conflict Theory A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as being composed of groups competing for scarce resources. 13

Conflict Theory Focuses on Social Tension and Social Change
Is macro level orientation Argues that Social Order is maintained by direct or indirect exercise of power “Marginality”-those on the fringe of society Originated from the work of Karl Marx

Social-Conflict Paradigm
The basics: A macro-oriented paradigm Views society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change Key elements: Society is structured in ways to benefit a few at the expense of the majority. Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to social inequality. Dominant group vs. disadvantaged group relations

Symbolic-Interaction Theory
A theoretical perspective that focuses on how people use symbols to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another.

Interactionism Focuses on details of everyday life and interaction between people, and on how meaning is assigned to human interaction Is micro level orientation Argues that society responds through symbolic interaction Originated from the studies of Max Weber and George Herbert Mead

Who’s Who in the Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm
Max Weber Understanding a setting from the people in it George Herbert Mead How we build personalities from social experience Erving Goffman Dramaturgical analysis George Homans & Peter Blau Social-exchange analysis

Critical Evaluation Structural-Functional Social-Conflict
Too broad, ignores inequalities of social class, race & gender, focuses on stability at the expense of conflict Social-Conflict Too broad, ignores how shared values and mutual interdependence unify society, pursues political goals Symbolic-Interaction Ignores larger social structures, effects of culture, factors such as class, gender & race

Sociological Investigation
A logical system that derives knowledge From direct, systematic observation

Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation
Scientific sociology The study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with our senses Interpretive sociology The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world Critical sociology The study of society that focuses on the need for change

Causation Cause and effect Correlation Spurious correlation
A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another (Hard to establish) Correlation A relationship by which two or more variables change together (direct/inverse- positive/negative) Spurious correlation An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more variables caused by some other variable Types of variables Independent: The variable that causes the change Dependent: The variable that changes (its value depends upon the independent variable)

Variables Dependent Variable- The variable that changes due to the
Independent Variable- the variable that causes the change Dependent: Grade on the Exam Independent(s): The amount of time studying, reading level, energy level, grades on previous tests, etc.

Spurious Correlations

Shoe Size & Math Skill

Scientific Sociology Terminology
Concepts–A mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form Variables–Concepts whose values change from case to case Measurement–A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case Operationalizing a variable–Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable

Reliability–Consistency in measurement Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure of the subject matter? Validity–Precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out to measure? If measurement is not Reliable, then it can’t be Valid- but needs to be both to be of any value

Objectivity A state of personal neutrality in conducting research Value-free research Weber said sociologists should strive to be dispassionate and detached. Replication Repetition of research by other investigators Helps limit distortion caused by personal values

Limitations of Scientific Sociology
Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions. The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied. Social patterns change. Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult.

Miligram's Experiment The Original Miligram Experiment (1961) • VideoSift: Online Video *Quality Control Administered electric shocks to “Subjects”

Sociological Research Methods A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research
Experiment–A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions Hypothesis–An unverified statement of a relationship between variables (an educated guess) Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experiment “Hawthorne effect”– A change in a subject's behavior caused by the awareness of being studied

Control To be certain that the change in the dependent variable was due to the exposure to the independent variable, the researcher must keep constant other factors that might intrude. One method is to break group into experimental and control groups. Experimental group is exposed to independent variable. Control group is exposed to a placebo.

Survey Research A research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or interview Population The people who are the focus of the research Sample The part of the population that represents the whole Random Sample Drawing a sample from a population so that every element of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Culture The values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that together form a people’s way of life

Terminology Nonmaterial culture Material culture
The intangible world of ideas created by members of a society Material culture The tangible things created by members of a society

Terminology Culture shock Ethnocentrism Cultural relativism
Disorientation due to the inability to make sense out of one’s surroundings Domestic and foreign travel Ethnocentrism A biased “cultural yardstick”-Evaluate based on your own Culture’s standards Cultural relativism More accurate understanding-cultural perspective-context of the culture

Symbols Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture Societies create new symbols all the time. Reality for humans is found in the meaning things carry with them. The basis of culture; makes social life possible

Symbols People must be mindful that meanings vary from culture to culture. Meanings can even vary greatly within the same groups of people. Fur coats, Confederate flags, etc.

Values and Beliefs Values Beliefs
Culturally defined standards of desirability, goodness, and beauty, which serve as broad guidelines for social living. Values support beliefs. Beliefs Specific statements that people hold to be true. Particular matters that individuals consider to be true or false.

Rules and expectations by which society guides its members’ behavior
Norms Rules and expectations by which society guides its members’ behavior Types Proscriptive Should-nots, prohibited Prescriptive Shoulds, prescribed like medicine Mores and Folkways Mores (pronounced "more-rays") Widely observed and have great moral significance Folkways Norms for routine and casual interaction

Social Control Guilt Shame A negative judgment we make about ourselves
Various means by which members of society encourage conformity to norms Guilt A negative judgment we make about ourselves Shame The painful sense that others disapprove of our actions

Cultural Diversity Subculture–Cultural patterns that set apart some segment of society’s population. Counterculture–Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society.

Terms Culture integration Culture lag
The close relationships among various elements of a cultural system Example: Computers and changes in our language Culture lag The fact that some cultural elements change more quickly than others, which might disrupt a cultural system Example: Medical procedures and ethics Cultural universals– Traits that are part of every known culture; includes family, funeral rites, and jokes

Socialization The lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture

Social Experience Socialization Personality
The lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their human potential and learn patterns of their culture Personality A person’s fairly consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting Could a person’s personality develop without social interaction?

Nature and Nurture Biological sciences–The role of nature
Elements of society have a naturalistic root. Social sciences–The role of nurture Most of who and what we are as a species is learned, or social in nature. Behaviorism Nature or nurture? It is both, but from a sociological perspective, nurture matters more.

Social Isolation Effect on nonhuman primates: Harlows’ experiments
Six months of complete isolation was enough to disturb development. Effect on children: Anna and Isabelle Years of isolation left both children damaged and only capable of approximating a normal life after intensive rehabilitation. Genie Somewhat less isolated, but suffered permanent disabilities

Theories Freud- Id, Ego, Superego Piaget- cognitive development
Kohlberg- Moral Reasoning Mead/ Cooley- “Self”/ “Looking glass self”

Erik Erickson This theory views personality as a lifelong process (8 Stages) and success at one stage prepares us for the next challenge. Critics: Not everyone confronts the challenges in the same order. Not clear if failure to meet one challenge predicts failure in other stages Do other cultures share Erickson’s definition of successful life?

Agents of Socialization
The Family The School The Peer Group The Mass Media Church Government

The Family Most important agent Parental attention is very important
A loving family produces a happy well-adjusted child. Parental attention is very important Bonding and encouragement Household environment Stimulates development Social position Race, religion, ethnicity, class

Socialization and Life Course
Each stage of life is linked to the biological process. Societies organize the life course by age. Other factors shape lives: race, class, ethnicity, and gender. Stages present problems and transitions that involve learning.

Social Interaction In Everyday Life
The process by which people act and react in relation to others

Social Interaction The symbolic interaction paradigm
What are the other two major theories? Do either have implications here? Humans rely on social structure to make sense out of everyday situations.

Status A social position that a person holds Status set
All the statuses held at one time Dance partner Boss Friend Harley club member Sports participant Business manager

Type of Status Ascribed: Involuntary positions
Achieved: Voluntary positions Often the two types work together. What we’re ascribed often helps us achieve other statuses. Master status: Has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life.

The behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status
Role The behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status Role set A number of roles attached to a single status Example: status of mother Disciplinarian Sports authority Dietitian Dr. Mom Pretty mom

Role Conflict and Role Strain
Involves two or more statuses Example: Conflict between role expectations of a police officer who catches her own son using drugs at home–mother and police officer Role strain Involves a single status Example: Manager who tries to balance concern for workers with task requirements–office manager

Role Exit Role exit: Becoming an “ex” The process of becoming an “ex”
Disengaging from social roles can be very traumatic without proper preparation. The process of becoming an “ex” Doubts form about ability to continue with a certain role. Examination of new roles leads to a turning point at which time one decides to pursue a new direction. Learning new expectations associated with new role. Past role might influence new self.

The Social Construction of Reality
The process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction. “Street smarts” The Thomas theorem Situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences Ethnomethodology The study of the way people make sense of their everyday surroundings Explores the process of making sense of social encounters

Goffman’s Dramaturgical Analysis
Examining social interaction in terms of theatrical performances Presentation of self or impression management Efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of others. Role performance includes Stage setting Use of props: costume, tone of voice, gesture Example: Going to the doctor and playing the expected patient role.

Groups and Organizations

Primary Groups Traits Small Personal orientation Enduring
Small social groups whose members share personal, lasting relationships. Traits Small Personal orientation Enduring Primary relationships First group experienced in life Irreplaceable Assistance of all kinds Emotional to financial

Secondary Groups Traits Large membership Goal or activity orientation
A large, impersonal social group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity. Traits Large membership Goal or activity orientation Formal and polite Secondary relationships Weak emotional ties Short term Examples Co-workers and political organizations

Figure Cards Used in Asch’s Experiment in Group Conformity In Asch’s experiment, subjects were asked to match the line on Card 1 to one of the lines on Card 2. Many subjects agreed with the wrong answers given by others in their group. Source: Asch (1952).

Social Conformity Kitty Genovese/What would you do?
“Bystander Effect”/ Diffusion of Responsibility” The larger the # of People in a group the less likely someone will respond (until someone else does) The less clear the situation the less likely someone will intervene

Sexuality and Society

Sex: A Biological Issue
The biological distinctions between females and males Primary sex characteristics Organs used for reproduction Secondary sex characteristics Bodily development that distinguishes mature males and females Sexual Orientation- rooted in Biology, social experience plays some role

Theoretical Analysis Structural-functional analysis
Need to regulate sexual behavior Latent function Symbolic-interaction analysis The social construction of sexuality Sexual practices vary from culture to culture. Social-conflict analysis Highlights dimensions of inequality Shows how sexuality reflects patterns of social inequality and helps perpetuate them. Queer theory–Research findings that challenge the heterosexual bias in US society.

Controversies-Sexuality
Teen pregnancy Highest rates of other high-income countries Sex education in schools: solution or problem? Highest for teenage women with low incomes and weak families Abortion- Remains the most controversial issue involving sexuality

The recognized violation of cultural norms
Deviance The recognized violation of cultural norms

The recognized violation of cultural norms
Deviance The recognized violation of cultural norms Norms guide almost all human activities Most familiar examples are negative instances of rule-breaking. Especially righteous people also might be called “deviant.” “Different” or “unexpected” are often used to describe deviance from a sociological perspective. Crime (laws) Violation of a society’s formal criminal law Criminal deviance spans a wide range of behaviors

The attempts a society makes at regulating thought and behavior
Social Control The attempts a society makes at regulating thought and behavior Criminal justice system A formal response by police, courts, and prison officials to alleged violations of the law. Biological context Biological factors might have a real but modest effect on whether a person becomes a criminal. Personality factors Deviance is viewed as unsuccessful “socialization.”

Social Foundations of Deviance
Deviance varies according to cultural norms. No thought or action is inherently deviant. People become deviant as others define them that way. How others perceive and label us Both norms and the way people define rule-breaking involve social power. Rule-makers, rule-breakers, and rule-enforcers Norms and applying them are linked to social position.

Labeling Deviance Symbolic-interaction analysis Primary deviance
The assertion that deviance and conformity result not so much from what people do as from how others respond to those actions. Primary deviance Norm violations that most people take part in with little harm to self-concept Secondary deviance When people “make something” of another’s deviant behavior Stigma Powerful negative label that greatly changes a person’s self-concept and social identity

Durkheim's Basic Insight
Deviance affirms cultural values and norms. There can be no good without evil and no justice without crime. Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries. People draw a boundary between right and wrong. Responding to deviance brings people together. People typically react to serious deviance with shared outrage. Deviance encourages social change. Deviant people push a society’s moral boundaries.

Sutherland’s Differential Association
Deviant behavior is learned. Frequency of association is central to the development of deviance. If associates are prone to violation of norms, then one is also more likely to take part. Conformity reaps rewards while the lack of it reaps punishment.

Deviance and Capitalism
Steven Spitzer’s likely targets of labeling People who interfere with capitalism. People who cannot or will not work. People who resist authority. Anyone who directly challenges the status quo White-collar crime Those committed by people of high social position in the course of their occupations Corporate crime Illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf Organized crime A business supplying illegal goods or services

Deviance, Race, and Gender
Hate crime A criminal act against a person or person’s property by an offender motivated by racial or other bias Gender The world applies more stringent normative controls to women. Strain due to reality of gender-based inequality Judge the behavior of women and men differently Why do women commit fewer crimes than men?

Crime The violation of criminal laws enacted by a locality, state, or the federal government Two elements The act itself Criminal intent Crimes against the person Direct violence or threat of it Crimes against property Involves theft of property Criminal statistics Victimization surveys: Crime rate is two to four times higher than official reports

The Street Criminal: A Profile
Ages 15-24 14% of population 39.7% of arrests for violent crime, 45% of property crimes Gender Males commit 67.4% of property crimes and 82% of violent crimes Social class Violent crimes committed by a few in poor neighborhoods White-collar and corporate crime committed by more affluent Race and ethnicity 69.8% of arrests involve white people People of color are over-criminalized

US Criminal Justice System Due Process
The criminal justice system must operate according to law. This principle is grounded in the Bill of Rights. Anyone charged with a crime must receive: Fair notice of the proceedings A hearing on the charges conducted according to law and with the ability to present a defense, A judge or jury that weighs evidence impartially

Justifications for Punishment
Retribution-revenge Deterrence-prevention Rehabilitation-make better Societal protection-Removal Recidivism- Later offenses by people previously convicted of crimes- High % chance of returning to prison- About a 60-70% chance charged with another crime within 3 years.

Social Stratification
A system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy

Basic Principles A trait of society Persists over generations
Doesn’t reflect individual differences, but society’s structure Persists over generations Social mobility happens slowly. Universal but variable While universal, it varies in type. Involves not just inequality, but beliefs Ideologies justify existence of social stratification.

The Caste System Birth determines social position in four ways:
Social stratification based on ascription, or birth Birth determines social position in four ways: Occupation Marriage within caste Social life is restricted to “own kind.” Belief systems are often tied to religious dogma. Many of the world’s societies are caste systems. Caste system is illegal, but elements survive.

Social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement
Class Systems Social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement Social mobility for people with education and skills All people gain equal standing before the law. Work involves some personal choice. Meritocracy: Based on personal merit

Class Systems Status consistency– The degree of uniformity in a person's social standing across various dimensions of social inequality. A caste system has limited social mobility and high status consistency. The greater mobility of class systems produces less status consistency.

The Davis-Moore Thesis
Social stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of a society The greater the importance of a position, the more rewards a society attaches to it. Egalitarian societies offer little incentive for people to try their best. Positions a society considers more important must reward enough to draw talented people

Karl Marx: Class and Conflict
Most people have one of two relationships with the means of production. Bourgeoisie own productive property. The proletariat works for the bourgeoisie. Capitalism creates great inequality in power and wealth. This oppression would drive the working majority to organize and overthrow capitalism.

Stratification and Interaction
Differences in social class position can affect interaction. People interact primarily with others of similar social standing. Conspicuous consumption refers to buying and using products because of the "statement" they make about social position.

Bell Curve-IQ

Social Class in the United States

A Middle-Class Society
Everyone stands equal under the law. We celebrate individuality. We interact mostly with people like ourselves. The US is an affluent society. Socioeconomic status (SES) reflects money (income, wealth & power), occupational prestige and schooling.

Dimensions of Class Earning from work or investments
Income Earning from work or investments Wealth The total value of money and other assets, minus any debt Power The ability to control, even in the face of resistance Occupational prestige Job-related status Schooling Key to better career opportunities

US Stratification: Merit and Caste
Ancestry Born to privilege or poverty makes a big difference Race and ethnicity Disparity still exists when comparing majority and minority groups on social and financial variables. People of English ancestry have always enjoyed the most wealth and the greatest power in US society. Gender More poor families are headed by women. On average, women have less income, wealth, and occupational prestige than men.

Social Classes The upper class 5% of the population
Earn at least $185,000 a year The middle class 40-45% of the population Large middle class has tremendous cultural influence. The working class 33% of the population Blue-collar jobs yield between $25,000 and $45,000 a year. The lower class The remaining 20% of the population Working poor hold low-prestige jobs that provide little income.

The Difference Class Makes
Health Amount and type of health care Values and attitudes Vary with position Politics Conservative or liberal Family and gender Type of parental involvement Socialization practices Relationships and responsibilities

Social Mobility Upward Downward Structural social mobility
College degree or higher-paying job Downward Drop out of school, losing a job or divorce Structural social mobility Changes in society or national economic trends Intragenerational mobility Change in social position during a person’s lifetime Intergenerational mobility Upward or downward movement that takes place across generations within a family

The American Dream Earnings have stalled for many workers
From , worker income rose slightly, even as the number of work hours increased and cost of necessities went way up. More jobs offer little income Many industrial jobs have gone overseas, reducing the number of high-paying US jobs. Young people are remaining at (and returning) home (Boomerang Kids) For the first time ever, half of Americans age 18 to 24 are living with their parents.

Extent of Poverty Relative poverty–The deprivation of some people in relation to those who have more Absolute poverty–A deprivation of resources that is life-threatening Poverty line About three times what the government estimates people must spend for food. The income of the average poor family is 60% of this amount. Extent of US poverty 12.6% (37 million) are impoverished.

Demographics of Poverty
Age In 2005, 35% of US poor were children. Race and ethnicity Two-thirds of all poor are white. In 2005, 25% of all African Americans and 21% of Hispanics were poor. Gender 61% of poor are women. Women who head households are at high risk of poverty.

Explaining Poverty Blame the poor Blame society
The poor are mostly responsible for their own poverty. Culture of poverty produces a self-perpetuating cycle of poverty Time limits for welfare Blame society Little opportunity for work William Julius Wilson: Little opportunity for work; not enough jobs to support families

Gender Stratification

Gender and Inequality Gender–Personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being female and male Gender stratification–Unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women Male-female biological differences

A form of social organization in which males dominate females
Patriarchy A form of social organization in which males dominate females Matriarchy–A form of social organization in which females dominate males Sexism–Belief that one sex or the other is innately inferior or superior Institutional sexism Found throughout the economy The costs of sexism Sexism limits half of the human population. Inevitability of patriarchy Most sociologists believe gender is socially constructed and can be changed.

Social Stratification
59% of all women work. Women hold primary responsibility for household duties. Our culture gives more responsibility for parenting to women. On average, women earn 77 cents for every dollar earned by men. Some work defined as “men’s work”

Race and Ethnicity Chapter 14

Definitions Race–A socially constructed category composed of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important Sociologists consider racial terms misleading at best and harmful at worst. No society contains biologically “pure” people. There are only three major classifications: Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Negroid

Definitions Ethnicity–a shared cultural heritage
The United States is a multiethnic society Like race, ethnicity is socially constructed Remember: Race is constructed from biological traits and ethnicity is constructed from cultural traits. For most people, ethnicity is more complex than race and more significant in terms of social identity.

Minority General characteristics Stereotypes, stigma, and labeling
Any category of people distinguished by physical or cultural difference that a society sets apart and subordinates General characteristics Distinct identity: Race, sex, sexual orientation, the poor Subordination: Often saddled with lower status Stereotypes, stigma, and labeling Group size not always a factor Women in US outnumber men. Blacks in South Africa outnumber whites.

Prejudice Prejudice–A rigid and unfair generalization about an entire category of people. Stereotype–An exaggerated description applied to every person in some category

Measuring Prejudice The Social Distance Scale
Student opinion shows a trend toward greater social acceptance. People see fewer differences among various minorities. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, might have reduced social acceptance of Arabs and Muslims.

Racism The belief that one racial category is innately superior or inferior to another Racism has been widespread throughout US history where ideas about racial inferiority supported slavery. Overt racism in the US has decreased, but remains a serious social problem.

Theories of Prejudice Scapegoat theory
Disadvantaged people who unfairly blame minorities for their own problems Authoritarian personality theory Rigid moralists who see things in “black & white” Culture theory Everyone has some prejudice because it’s embedded in culture.

Theories of Prejudice Conflict theory
Self-justification for the rich and powerful in the United States Minorities might cultivate climate of race consciousness in order to win greater power and privileges.

Unequal treatment of various categories of people
Discrimination Unequal treatment of various categories of people Institutional prejudice and discrimination– Bias built into the operation of society’s institutions Carmichael and Hamilton: People are slow to condemn or even recognize institutional prejudice and discrimination because it often involves respected public officials and long-established practices.

The Vicious Circle Prejudice and discrimination begin as ethnocentric attitudes. As a result, groups can be placed in a situation where they’re socially disadvantaged and labeled. A group’s situation, over time, is thus explained as a result of innate inferiority rather than looking at the social structure. The cycle then repeats itself.

Figure Prejudice and Discrimination: The Vicious Circle Prejudice and discrimination can form a vicious circle, perpetuating themselves.

Patterns of Interaction
Pluralism–A state in which people of all races and ethnicities are distinct but have equal social standing Assimilation–The process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture Miscegenation–Biological reproduction by partners of different racial categories

Patterns of Interaction
Segregation–The physical and social separation of categories of people De facto- just happens De Jure- by law or policy Genocide–The systematic killing of one category of people by another

The END!!!

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