1. CELLS

2. THE CYTOPLASM CYTOSOL: JELLY-LIKE FLUID CONTAINS THE CYTOSKELETON COMPOSED OF 75 – 90% WATER + IONS, GLUCOSE, AMINO ACIDS, FATTY ACIDS, PROTEINS, LIPIDS, ATP, AND WASTE PRODUCTS CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES: METABOLIC MACHINERY OF THE CELL SEPARATE STRUCTURES THAT MAY OR MAY NOT BE ENCLOSED BY A MEMBRANE PERFORM SPECIFIC ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

3. RIBOSOMES CONSTRUCTED OF PROTEIN AND RIBOSOMAL RNA (RRNA) PRODUCED IN THE NUCLEOLUS FUNCTION AS THE SITE OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS FREE RIBOSOMES SYNTHESIZE SOLUBLE PROTEINS USED IN THE CYTOSOL MEMBRANE-BOUND RIBOSOMES SYNTHESIZE PROTEINS FOR INSERTION IN THE PM OR SECRETION FROM THE CELL

4. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER): NETWORK OF MEMBRANE-ENCLOSED CHANNELS (CISTERNAE) ROUGH ER (RER): WITH ATTACHED RIBOSOMES (CONTINUOUS WITH THE NUCLEAR ENVELOPE) SYNTHESIZES GLYCOPROTEINS AND PHOSPHOLIPIDS PRODUCTS TRANSFERRED INTO ORGANELLES, INSERTED INTO PM, OR SECRETED DURING EXOCYTOSIS SMOOTH ER (SER): NO RIBOSOMES (CONTINUOUS WITH RER) SYNTHESIZES FATTY ACIDS AND STEROIDS; INACTIVATES/DETOXIFIES DRUGS AND HARMFUL SUBSTANCES; REMOVES PHOSPHATE GROUP FROM GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE ER STORE CALCIUM IONS UNTIL NEEDED

5. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Figure 3.5 Ribosome Protein Protein inside transport vesicle Transport vesicle buds off mRNA Rough ER As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER cistern. In the cistern, the protein folds into its functional shape. Short sugar chains may be attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein). The protein is packaged in a tiny membranous sac called a transport vesicle. The transport vesicle buds from the rough ER and travels to the Golgi apparatus for further processing or goes directly to the plasma membrane where its contents are secreted.

6. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Figure 3.5, step 1 Ribosome Protein mRNA Rough ER As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER cistern.

7. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Figure 3.5, step 2 Ribosome Protein mRNA Rough ER As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER cistern. In the cistern, the protein folds into its functional shape. Short sugar chains may be attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).

8. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Figure 3.5, step 3 Ribosome Protein Transport vesicle buds off mRNA Rough ER As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER cistern. In the cistern, the protein folds into its functional shape. Short sugar chains may be attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein). The protein is packaged in a tiny membranous sac called a transport vesicle.

9. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Figure 3.5, step 4 Ribosome Protein Protein inside transport vesicle Transport vesicle buds off mRNA Rough ER As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome, it migrates into the rough ER cistern. In the cistern, the protein folds into its functional shape. Short sugar chains may be attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein). The protein is packaged in a tiny membranous sac called a transport vesicle. The transport vesicle buds from the rough ER and travels to the Golgi apparatus for further processing or goes directly to the plasma membrane where its contents are secreted.

10. CLINICAL CONNECTION – SER AND DRUG TOLERANCE SER DETOXIFIES SOME DRUGS SUCH AS THE SEDATIVE PHENOBARBITAL TAKEN REPEATEDLY, INDIVIDUALS DEVELOP CHANGES IN THE SER OF THEIR LIVER CELLS PROLONGED ADMINISTRATION RESULTS IN INCREASED TOLERANCE TO THE DRUG WITH REPEATED EXPOSURE THE AMOUNT OF SER AND ITS ENZYMES INCREASES TO PROTECT THE CELL FROM ITS TOXIC EFFECTS INCREASED SER  HIGHER AND HIGHER DOSES NEEDED TO ACHIEVE ORIGINAL EFFECT

11. GOLGI APPARATUS: PACKAGING AND SHIPPING DEPARTMENT STACK OF 3 TO 10 DISC-SHAPED MEMBRANOUS SACS (CISTERNAE) 1.MODIFIES, SORTS, PACKAGES PRODUCTS OF THE RER SENDING THEM TO THEIR PROPER DESTINATION 2.FORMS SECRETORY VESICLES THAT SECRETES PROCESSED PROTEINS VIA EXOCYTOSIS 3.FORMS MEMBRANE VESICLES TO SEND NEW MOLECULES TO THE PM 4.FORMS TRANSPORT VESICLES TO CARRY MOLECULES TO OTHER ORGANELLES (LYSOSOMES) PRODUCTS OF RER MOVE THROUGH THE GOLGI FROM THE CONVEX (CIS) SIDE TO THE CONCAVE (TRANS) SIDE Cis face—“receiving” side Secretory vesicle Transport vesicle Transport vesicle from trans face Trans face— “shipping” side New vesicles forming Cisternae Transport vesicle from rough ER Golgi apparatus

12. Figure 2.8 SEQUENCE OF EVENTS FROM PROTEIN SYNTHESIS ON THE ROUGH ER TO THE PROTEINS FINAL DISTRIBUTION Plasma membrane Secretion by exocytosis Vesicle becomes lysosome Golgi apparatus Rough ER ER membranePhagosome Proteins in cisterna Pathway B: Vesicle membrane to be incorporated into plasma membrane Pathway A: Vesicle contents destined for exocytosis Extracellular fluid Secretory vesicle Pathway C: Lysosome containing acid hydrolase enzymes Protein-containing vesicles pinch off rough ER and migrate to fuse with membranes of Golgi apparatus. Proteins are modified within the Golgi compartments. Proteins are then packaged within different vesicle types, depending on their ultimate destination. 1 2 3

13. Figure 3.6 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Golgi vesicle containing membrane components fuses with the plasma membrane Golgi vesicle containing digestive enzymes becomes a lysosome Proteins in cisterna Lysosome fuses with ingested substances Membrane Transport vesicle Pathway 3 Pathway 2 Secretory vesicles Pathway 1 Golgi apparatus Golgi vesicle containing proteins to be secreted becomes a secretory vesicle Cisterna Rough ER Proteins Secretion by exocytosis

14. Figure 3.6, step 1 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Proteins in cisterna Membrane Golgi apparatus Cisterna Rough ER

15. Figure 3.6, step 2 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Proteins in cisterna Membrane Transport vesicle Golgi apparatus Cisterna Rough ER Pathway 1

16. Figure 3.6, step 3 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Proteins in cisterna Membrane Transport vesicle Golgi apparatus Cisterna Rough ER Pathway 1

17. Figure 3.6, step 4 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Proteins in cisterna Membrane Transport vesicle Secretory vesicle Pathway 1 Golgi apparatus Golgi vesicle containing proteins to be secreted becomes a secretory vesicle Cisterna Rough ER

18. Figure 3.6, step 5 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Proteins in cisterna Membrane Transport vesicle Secretory vesicles Pathway 1 Golgi apparatus Golgi vesicle containing proteins to be secreted becomes a secretory vesicle Cisterna Rough ER Proteins Secretion by exocytosis

19. Figure 3.6, step 6 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Proteins in cisterna Membrane Transport vesicle Pathway 2 Golgi apparatus Cisterna Rough ER

20. Figure 3.6, step 7 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Proteins in cisterna Membrane Transport vesicle Pathway 2 Golgi apparatus Cisterna Rough ER

21. Figure 3.6, step 8 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Golgi vesicle containing membrane components fuses with the plasma membrane Proteins in cisterna Membrane Transport vesicle Pathway 2 Golgi apparatus Cisterna Rough ER

22. Figure 3.6, step 9 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Proteins in cisterna Membrane Transport vesicle Pathway 3 Golgi apparatus Cisterna Rough ER

23. Figure 3.6, step 10 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Golgi vesicle containing digestive enzymes becomes a lysosome Proteins in cisterna Membrane Transport vesicle Pathway 3 Golgi apparatus Cisterna Rough ER

24. Figure 3.6, step 11 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Golgi vesicle containing digestive enzymes becomes a lysosome Proteins in cisterna Lysosome fuses with ingested substances Membrane Transport vesicle Pathway 3 Golgi apparatus Cisterna Rough ER

25. Figure 3.6, step 12 Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane Golgi vesicle containing membrane components fuses with the plasma membrane Golgi vesicle containing digestive enzymes becomes a lysosome Proteins in cisterna Lysosome fuses with ingested substances Membrane Transport vesicle Pathway 3 Pathway 2 Secretory vesicles Pathway 1 Golgi apparatus Golgi vesicle containing proteins to be secreted becomes a secretory vesicle Cisterna Rough ER Proteins Secretion by exocytosis

26. LYSOSOMES: MEMBRANE-ENCLOSED VESICLES CONTAINING DIGESTIVE ENZYMES (HYDROLASES) 1.DIGEST SUBSTANCES THAT ENTER A CELL VIA ENDOCYTOSIS AND TRANSPORT FINAL PRODUCTS OF DIGESTION INTO THE CYTOSOL 2.AUTOPHAGY : DIGESTION OF INTERNAL MEMBRANES, PROTEINS, AND ORGANELLES THAT ARE DAMAGED OR WORN OUT 3.AUTOLYSIS: DIGESTION OF THE ENTIRE CELL 4.EXTRACELLULAR DIGESTION: FUSE WITH VESICLES CONTAINING SUBSTANCES FOR DEGRADATION SUCH AS INGESTED BACTERIA AND VIRUSES

27. CLINICAL CONNECTION – TAY-SACHS DISEASE A INHERITED DISORDER CAUSED BY ABSENCE OF A SINGLE LYSOSOMAL ENZYME CALLED HEX A HEX A BREAKS DOWN GANGLIOSIDE G M2, A MEMBRANE GLYCOLIPID PREVALENT IN NERVE CELLS AS EXCESS GANGLIOSIDE ACCUMULATES, NERVE CELLS FUNCTION LESS EFFICIENTLY RESULTING IN SEIZURES AND MUSCLE RIGIDITY GRADUALLY AFFECTED INDIVIDUALS BECOME BLIND, DEMENTED, AND UNCOORDINATED AND USUALLY DIE BEFORE THE AGE OF 5

28. PEROXISOMES: TOXIC WASTE DISPOSAL SYSTEM PEROXISOMES: MEMBRANE-WALLED SACS OF OXIDASE ENZYMES ENZYMES NEUTRALIZE FREE RADICALS AND DEGRADE TOXIC SUBSTANCES OXIDASES: ENZYMES OXIDIZE (REMOVE HYDROGEN ATOMS FROM) VARIOUS ORGANIC SUBSTANCES AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES SUCH AS ALCOHOL TOXIC BYPRODUCTS OF METABOLISM, HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (H 2 O 2 ) DECOMPOSED BY CATALASE AND SUPEROXIDE (O 2 - ) BY SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE WITHOUT PEROXISOMES, BYPRODUCTS OF METABOLISM WOULD ACCUMULATE RESULTING IN CELLULAR DEATH BREAK DOWN LONG CHAINS OF FATTY ACIDS NUMEROUS IN THE LIVER AND KIDNEYS

29. PROTEASOMES TINY BARREL-SHAPED PROTEIN STRUCTURES THAT CONTAIN PROTEASES ENZYMES THAT BREAK DOWN UNNEEDED, DAMAGED, OR FAULTY CYTOSOLIC PROTEINS ALZHEIMER DISEASE AND PARKINSON DISEASE MAY RESULT FROM FAILURE OF PROTEASOMES TO DEGRADE ABNORMAL PROTEINS Copyright 2012, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

30. MITOCHONDRIA: CELL’S POWER PLANT COMPLEX ORGANELLE THAT GENERATES MOST OF THE CELL’S ENERGY SELF-REPLICATE: ABUNDANT IN ENERGY- REQUIRING CELLS (MUSCLE CELLS, SPERM) ENCLOSED BY TWO MEMBRANES: SMOOTH OUTER MEMBRANE, INNER MEMBRANE FOLDS INWARD TO PRODUCE CRISTAE (“CRESTS”) ATP PRODUCTION STARTS IN THE MATRIX (CITRIC ACID CYCLE / KREB CYCLE) COMPLETED ON INNER MEMBRANE (OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION AND ELECTRON TRANSPORT) Enzymes

31. (a) Microfilaments Strands made of spherical protein subunits called actins (b) Intermediate filaments Tough, insoluble protein fibers constructed like woven ropes (c) Microtubules Hollow tubes of spherical protein subunits called tubulins Actin subunit 7 nm 10 nm 25 nm Fibrous subunits Tubulin subunits Microfilaments form the blue network surrounding the pink nucleus in this photo. Intermediate filaments form the purple batlike network in this photo. Microtubules appear as gold networks surrounding the cells’ pink nuclei in this photo. CYTOSKELETON (“CELL SKELETON”): ELABORATE NETWORK OF RODS MICROFILAMENTS: FILAMENTS COMPOSED OF ACTIN (CONTRACTILE PROTEIN) INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS: COMPOSED OF TOUGH INSOLUBLE PROTEIN FIBERS MICROTUBULES: CYLINDRICAL STRUCTURES MADE OF PROTEINS (TUBULIN SUBUNITS )

32. CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES CENTROSOMES: SPHERICAL STRUCTURES IN THE CYTOPLASM COMPOSED OF CENTROSOME MATRIX AND PAIR OF CENTRIOLES MATRIX SEEDS GROWTH AND ELONGATION OF MICROTUBULES CENTRIOLES: PAIRED CYLINDRICAL BODIES COMPOSED OF 27 SHORT MICROTUBULES FORMATION OF MITOTIC SPINDLE IN KARYOKINESIS (NUCLEAR DIVISION) CILIA AND FLAGELLA: MADE OF MICROTUBULES CILIA FUNCTIONS IN MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES OVER CELL SURFACES FLAGELLA PROPEL SPERM

33. CILIA AND FLAGELLA Copyright 2012, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Cilia move fluids along a cell surface A flagellum moves an entire cell

34. CLINICAL CONNECTION – CILIA AND SMOKING CILIA: MOVEMENT PARALYZED BY NICOTINE IN CIGARETTE SMOKE SMOKERS COUGH OFTEN TO REMOVE FOREIGN PARTICLES FROM THEIR AIRWAYS IN FEMALES CILIA ON CELLS THAT LINE THE UTERINE TUBES SWEEP OOCYTES TOWARD THE UTERUS SMOKING INCREASES THE RISK OF ECTOPIC PREGNANCY

35. CYTOPLASMIC INCLUSIONS TEMPORARY STRUCTURES NOT PRESENT IN ALL CELL TYPES MAY CONSIST OF PIGMENTS, CRYSTALS OF PROTEIN, AND FOOD STORES LIPID DROPLETS: FOUND IN LIVER CELL AND FAT CELLS GLYCOSOMES: STORE SUGAR IN THE FORM OF GLYCOGEN

36. THE NUCLEUS: CONTROL CENTER OF THE CELL LARGEST ORGANELLE ~5ΜM IN DIAMETER CONTAINS THE GENETIC MATERIAL (DNA) THAT DIRECTS THE CELL’S ACTIVITIES NUCLEAR ENVELOPE: PARALLEL MEMBRANES SEPARATED BY A FLUID-FILLED SPACE NUCLEAR PORES ALLOW LARGE MOLECULES TO PASS IN AND OUT OF THE NUCLEUS NUCLEOLUS (‘LITTLE NUCLEUS’): SITE OF RIBOSOME SUBUNIT ASSEMBLY CONTAINS PARTS OF SEVERAL CHROMOSOMES Chromatin (condensed) Nuclear envelope Nucleus Nuclear pores Nucleolus Cisternae of rough ER (a) Nuclear pore complexes Each pore ringed by protein particles

37. CELL DIVERSITY Figure 3.8a

38. CELL DIVERSITY Figure 3.8b

39. CELL DIVERSITY Figure 3.8c

40. CELL DIVERSITY Figure 3.8d

41. CELL DIVERSITY Figure 3.8e

42. CELL DIVERSITY Figure 3.8f

43. CELL DIVERSITY Figure 3.8g