1. Deductive Reasoning

2. Computer science Philosophy
Eden described them as the "rationalist paradigm" (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly employs deductive reasoning), the "technocratic paradigm" (which might be found in engineering approaches, most prominently in software engineering), and the "scientific paradigm" (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of natural sciences, identifiable in some branches of Artificial Intelligence).

3. Scientific method
Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions, by reasoning including deductive reasoning. It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction can also be statistical and deal only with probabilities.

4. Scientific method
The ancient Greek philosopher Thales in the 6th century BC refused to accept supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena, proclaiming that every event had a natural cause. The development of deductive reasoning by Plato was an important step towards the scientific method. Empiricism seems to have been formalized by Aristotle, who believed that universal truths could be reached via induction.

5. Philosophy
Deductive reasoning is when, given certain statements (called premises), other statements (called conclusions) are unavoidably implied

6. Evolutionary psychology - Modularity of mind
In contrast, some academics argue that it is unnecessary to posit the existence of highly domain specific modules, and, suggest that the neural anatomy of the brain supports a model based on more domain general faculties and processes. Moreover, empirical support for the domain-specific theory stems almost entirely from performance on variations of the Wason selection task which is extremely limited in scope as it only tests one subtype of deductive reasoning.

7. Laissez-faire - Critiques
The British economist John Maynard Keynes condemned laissez-faire economic policy on several occasions. In The End of Laissez-faire (1926), one of the most famous of his critiques, Keynes argues that the doctrines of laissez-faire are dependent to some extent on improper deductive reasoning, and, Keynes says, the question of whether a market solution or state intervention is better must be determined on a case-by-case basis.

8. Mercantilism - Legacy
Smith rejected this, arguing that deductive reasoning from base principles was the proper method to discover economic truths

9. Semantic Web - Semantic Web solutions
In this way, a machine can process knowledge itself, instead of text, using processes similar to human deductive reasoning and inference, thereby obtaining more meaningful results and helping computers to perform automated information gathering and research.

10. Semantic Web - Challenges
Inconsistency: These are logical contradictions which will inevitably arise during the development of large ontologies, and when ontologies from separate sources are combined. Deductive reasoning fails catastrophically when faced with inconsistency, because "anything follows from a contradiction". Defeasible reasoning and paraconsistent reasoning are two techniques which can be employed to deal with inconsistency.

11. History of science - Science in the Greek world
Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry

12. Empiricism - Pragmatism
Among Peirce's major contributions was to place inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning in a complementary rather than competitive mode, the latter of which had been the primary trend among the educated since David Hume wrote a century before

13. Exploratory testing - Benefits and drawbacks
Another major benefit is that testers can use deductive reasoning based on the results of previous results to guide their future testing on the fly. They do not have to complete a current series of scripted tests before focusing in on or moving on to exploring a more target rich environment. This also accelerates bug detection when used intelligently.

14. Charles Sanders Peirce -
Influences radiate from points on parallel lines of inquiry in Aristotle's work, in such loci as: the basic terminology of psychology in On the Soul; the founding description of sign relations in On Interpretation; and the differentiation of inference into three modes that are commonly translated into English as Abductive reasoning|abduction, Deductive reasoning|deduction, and Inductive reasoning|induction, in the Prior Analytics, as well as inference by analogy (called paradeigma by Aristotle), which Peirce regarded as involving the other three modes.

15. Charles Sanders Peirce - Modes of inference
Borrowing a brace of concepts from Aristotle, Peirce examined three basic modes of inference — abductive reasoning|abduction, deductive reasoning|deduction, and Inductive reasoning|induction — in his critique of arguments or logic proper

16. Abductive reasoning
In abductive reasoning, unlike in deductive reasoning, the premises do not guarantee the conclusion. One can understand abductive reasoning as inference to the best explanation.Sober, Elliot. Core Questions in Philosophy,5th edition.

17. Abductive reasoning - Deduction, induction, and abduction
; Deductive reasoning (deduction) : allows deriving b from a only where b is a formal logical consequence of a. In other words, deduction derives the consequences of the assumed. Given the truth of the assumptions, a valid deduction guarantees the truth of the conclusion. For example, given that all bachelors are unmarried males, and given that this person is a bachelor, one can deduce that this person is an unmarried male.

18. Abductive reasoning - Deduction, induction, and abduction
Deductive reasoning and abductive reasoning thus differ in the direction in which a rule like a entailment|entails b is used for inference

19. Foundationalism
Classically, foundationalism had posited infallibility of basic beliefs and deductive reasoning between beliefs—a strong foundationalism

20. Foundationalism - Classical foundationalism
Classical foundationalism maintains that basic beliefs must be Infallibility#In philosophy|infallible if they are to justify nonbasic beliefs, and that only deductive reasoning can be used to transfer justification from one belief to another.Lemos 2007, pp

21. Falsifiability - Economics
Some economists, such as those of the Austrian School, believe that macroeconomics is Empiricism|empirically unfalsifiable and that thus the only appropriate means to understand economic events is by deductive reasoning|logically studying Subjective theory of value|the intentions of methodological individualism|individual economic decision-makers, Praxeology#Austrian School approach|based on certain fundamental Action axiom|truths.Ludwig von Mises

22. Empirical evidence
In another sense, empirical evidence may be synonymous with the outcome of an experiment. In this sense, an empirical result is a unified confirmation. In this context, the term semi-empirical is used for qualifying theoretical methods which use in part basic axioms or postulated scientific laws and experimental results. Such methods are opposed to theoretical ab initio methods which are purely Deductive reasoning|deductive and based on first principles.

23. Formal reasoning - Subject-centred reason in early modern philosophy
In the late 17th century, through the 18th century, John Locke and David Hume developed Descartes' line of thought still further. Hume took it in an especially skepticism|skeptical direction, proposing that there could be no possibility of deductive reasoning|deducing relationships of cause and effect, and therefore no knowledge is based on reasoning alone, even if it seems otherwise.

24. Formal reasoning - Logical reasoning methods and argumentation
Looking at logical categorizations of different types of reasoning the traditional main division made in philosophy is between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. Logic|Formal logic has been described as the science of deduction.Jeffrey, Richard Formal logic: its scope and limits, (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill:1. The study of inductive reasoning is generally carried out within the field known as informal logic or critical thinking.

25. Formal reasoning - Reason versus truth, and first principles
People use logic, deductive reasoning|deduction, and inductive reasoning|induction, to reach conclusions they think are true

26. Computer sciences - Philosophy
Eden described them as the rationalist paradigm (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly employs deductive reasoning), the technocratic paradigm (which might be found in engineering approaches, most prominently in software engineering), and the scientific paradigm (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of natural sciences, identifiable in some branches of Artificial Intelligence).

27. Aristotle - Aristotle's epistemology
In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both Inductive reasoning|inductive and Deductive reasoning|deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive from A priori and a posteriori|a priori principles.

28. A priori and a posteriori
Although definitions and use of the terms have varied in the history of philosophy, they have consistently labelled two separate epistemological notions. See also the related distinctions: deductive reasoning|deductive/Inductive reasoning|inductive, Analytic-synthetic distinction|analytic/synthetic, Contingency (philosophy)|necessary/contingent.

29. Semantic Web - Semantic Web solutions
In this way, a machine can process knowledge itself, instead of text, using processes similar to human deductive reasoning and inference, thereby obtaining more meaningful results and helping computers to perform automated information gathering and research.

30. Semantic Web - Challenges
* Inconsistency: These are logical contradictions which will inevitably arise during the development of large ontologies, and when ontologies from separate sources are combined. Deductive reasoning fails catastrophically when faced with inconsistency, because Principle of explosion|anything follows from a contradiction. Defeasible reasoning and Paraconsistent logic|paraconsistent reasoning are two techniques which can be employed to deal with inconsistency.

31. Psychology of reasoning - Different sorts of reasoning
Psychologically, what are the relationships between inductive reasoning|induction, deductive reasoning|deduction, abductive reasoning|abduction, and analogy?

32. Psychology of reasoning - Neuroscience of reasoning
* What are the neural correlates of reasoning, often investigated using event-related potentials and functional magnetic resonance imaging?See, e.g., Goel, V. (2005). Cognitive Neuroscience of Deductive Reasoning. In Holyoak, K. J. Morrison, R. G. (ed.). The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning, Cambridge University Press

33. Confirmation bias - Individual differences
Studies have suggested that individual differences such as deductive reasoning ability, ability to overcome belief bias, epistemological understanding, and thinking disposition are a significant predictors of the reasoning and generating arguments, counterarguments, and rebuttals.

34. Statistics - Scope
Statistics is closely related to probability theory, with which it is often grouped. The difference is, roughly, that probability theory starts from the given parameters of a total population to deductive reasoning|deduce probabilities that pertain to samples. Statistical inference, however, moves in the opposite direction—inductive reasoning|inductively inferring from samples to the parameters of a larger or total population. Statistics has many ties to machine learning and data mining.

35. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - T/F
The third continuum reflects the person’s decision preferences. Thinking types desire objective truth and logical principles and are natural at deductive reasoning. Feeling types place an emphasis on issues and causes that can be personalized while they consider other people's motives.

36. List of thought processes
* Deductive reasoning

37. Reasoning - Deductive reasoning
A subdivision of Philosophy is Logic. Logic is the study of reasoning. Deduction is a form of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the stated premises. Deduction is generally an inference by reasoning from the general to the specific. A deduction is also the conclusion reached by a deductive reasoning process. One classic example of deductive reasoning is that found in syllogisms like the following:

38. Reasoning - Reason versus truth, and first principles
People use logic, deductive reasoning|deduction, and inductive reasoning|induction, to reach conclusions they think are true

39. Analysis - Intelligence
Intelligence agency|Intelligence agencies may use heuristics, inductive reasoning|inductive and deductive reasoning, social network analysis, dynamic network analysis, Social network#Social network analysis|link analysis, and brainstorming to sort through problems they face

40. Cambrian - Cambrian dating
The rationale for this precise dating is interesting in itself as an example of Paleontology|paleological deductive reasoning

41. René Descartes - Philosophical work
In this manner, Descartes proceeds to construct a system of knowledge, discarding perception as unreliable and instead admitting only deductive reasoning|deduction as a method

42. List of topics related to brain mapping - Higher level functioning
* Logic, Deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning

43. Experiment - History
He disagreed with the method of answering scientific questions by deductive reasoning|deduction and described it as follows: Having first determined the question according to his will, man then resorts to experience, and bending her to conformity with his placets, leads her about like a captive in a procession.Bacon, Francis

44. Reverse engineering
The purpose is to Deductive reasoning|deduce design decisions from end products with little or no additional knowledge about the procedures involved in the original production

45. Batman - Skills and abilities
He is efficient with observation skills, deductive reasoning, and forensic investigation

46. Inductive reasoning
'Inductive reasoning '(as opposed to deductive reasoning|deductive reasoning) is reasoning in which the premises seek to supply strong evidence for (not absolute proof of) the truth of the conclusion. While the conclusion of a deductive argument is supposed to be certain, the truth of an inductive argument is supposed to be probable, based upon the evidence given.Copi, I. M., Cohen, C., Flage, D. E. (2007). Essentials of logic (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

47. Inductive reasoning - Description
Unlike deductive reasoning, it does not rely on universals holding over a Closed world assumption|closed domain of discourse to draw conclusions, so it can be applicable even in cases of Open world assumption|epistemic uncertainty (technical issues with this may arise however; for example, the Axioms_of_probability#Second_axiom|second axiom of probability is a closed-world assumption).Bart Kosko, Fuzziness vs

48. Inductive reasoning - Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
Note that this definition of inductive reasoning excludes mathematical induction, which is a form of deductive reasoning|deductive reasoning.

49. Models of scientific inquiry - Classical model
The classical model of scientific inquiry derives from Aristotle, who distinguished the forms of approximate and exact reasoning, set out the threefold scheme of abductive reasoning|abductive, deductive reasoning|deductive, and inductive reasoning|inductive inference, and also treated the compound forms such as reasoning by analogy.

50. Inquiry - Inquiry in the pragmatic paradigm
Borrowing a brace of concepts from Aristotle, Peirce examined three fundamental modes of reasoning that play a role in inquiry, commonly known as abductive reasoning|abductive, deductive reasoning|deductive, and inductive reasoning|inductive inference.

51. Inquiry - Inquiry in the pragmatic paradigm
In rough terms, abductive reasoning|abduction is what we use to generate a likely hypothesis or an initial diagnosis in response to a phenomenon of interest or a problem of concern, while deductive reasoning|deduction is used to clarify, to derive, and to explicate the relevant consequences of the selected hypothesis, and inductive reasoning|induction is used to test the sum of the predictions against the sum of the data

52. Pierre Duhem - Philosophy
In this work, he opposed Isaac Newton|Newton's statement that the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia's Newton's Law of Gravity|law of universal mutual gravitation was Deductive reasoning|deduced from 'phenomena', including Johannes Kepler|Kepler's second and third laws

53. Misnomer - Other
* In logic, begging the question is a type of fallacy occurring in deductive reasoning, in which the proposition to be Logical argument|proved is assumed implicitly or explicitly in one of the premises. However, more recently, begs the question has been used as a synonym for raises the question.

54. Semiotics - Some important semioticians
He regarded formal semiotic as logic per se and part of philosophy; as also encompassing study of arguments (Abductive reasoning|hypothetical, Deductive reasoning|deductive, and Inductive reasoning|inductive) and inquiry's methods including pragmatism; and as allied to but distinct from logic's pure mathematics

55. Adolescence - Hypothetical and abstract thinking
One manifestation of the adolescent's increased facility with thinking about possibilities is the improvement of skill in deductive reasoning, which leads to the development of hypothetical thinking

56. Applied philosophy - Logic
Deductive reasoning is when, given certain statements (called premises), other statements (called conclusions) are logical consequence|unavoidably implied

57. Logic
Logic is often divided into three parts; inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning.

58. Logic - Deductive and inductive reasoning, and retroductive inference
Deductive reasoning concerns what follows necessarily from given premises (if a, then b)

59. Euler diagram - Example: Euler- to Venn-diagram and Karnaugh map
Given a proposed conclusion such as No X is a Z, one can test whether or not it is a correct Deductive reasoning|deduction by use of a truth table

60. Defeasible reasoning
* deductive reasoning|Deductive (from meaning postulate, axiom, or contingent assertion): if p then q (i.e., q or not-p)

61. Defeasible reasoning - History
Though Aristotle differentiated the forms of reasoning that are valid for logic and philosophy from the more general ones that are used in everyday life (see dialectics and rhetoric), 20th century philosophers mainly concentrated on deductive reasoning

62. Deductive reasoning
'Deductive reasoning', also 'deductive logic' or 'logical deduction' or, informally, 'Top-down and bottom-up design|top-down logic',[ Deduction Induction, Research Methods Knowledge Base] is the process of reasoning from one or more general argument (logic)|statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion.

63. Deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning links premises with Consequent|conclusions. If all premises are true, the terms are unambiguous|clear, and the rules of deductive logic are followed, then the conclusion reached is logical necessity|necessarily true.

64. Deductive reasoning
Note, however, that the inductive reasoning mentioned here is not the same as mathematical induction|induction used in mathematical proofs – mathematical induction is actually a form of deductive reasoning.

65. Deductive reasoning - Law of detachment
The law of detachment (also known as 'affirming the antecedent' and 'Modus ponens') is the first form of deductive reasoning. A single Material conditional|conditional statement is made, and a hypothesis (P) is stated. The conclusion (Q) is then deduced from the statement and the hypothesis. The most basic form is listed below:

66. Deductive reasoning - Law of detachment
In deductive reasoning, we can conclude Q from P by using the law of detachment.[ Guide to Logic] However, if the conclusion (Q) is given instead of the hypothesis (P) then there is no definitive conclusion.

67. Deductive reasoning - Law of detachment
#If an angle satisfies 90° A It is in High School, for example, that students have an abrupt introduction to mathematical proofs– which rely heavily on deductive reasoning.

68. Piaget's theory of cognitive development - Symbolic function substage
Unlike Deductive reasoning|deductive or inductive reasoning (general to specific, or specific to general), transductive reasoning refers to when a child reasons from specific to specific, drawing a relationship between two separate events that are otherwise unrelated

69. Piaget's theory of cognitive development - Concrete operational stage
In contrast, children struggle with deductive reasoning, which involves using a generalized principle in order to try to predict the outcome of an event

70. Piaget's theory of cognitive development - Important processes
They use hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which means that they develop hypotheses or best guesses, and systematically deduce, or conclude, which is the best path to follow in solving the problem

71. Piaget's theory of cognitive development - Formal operational stage
The final stage is known as the 'formal operational stage' (adolescence and into adulthood, roughly ages 11 to approximately 15-20): Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. At this point, the person is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.

72. Piaget's theory of cognitive development - Formal operational stage
Piaget believed that hypothetical-deductive reasoning becomes important during the formal operational stage. This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often required in science and mathematics.

73. Analogies
In a narrower sense, analogy is an inference or an Logical argument|argument from one particular to another particular, as opposed to deductive reasoning|deduction, inductive reasoning|induction, and abductive reasoning|abduction, where at least one of the premises or the conclusion is general

74. Analogies - Hidden deduction
The opposite move could also be tried, 'reducing analogy to deduction'. It is argued that every analogical argument is partially superfluous and can be rendered as a Deductive reasoning|deduction stating as a premise a (previously hidden) universal proposition which applied both to the source and the target. In this view, instead of an argument with the form:

75. Truth - Ancient history
The ancient Greek language|Greek origins of the words true and truth have some consistent definitions throughout great spans of history that were often associated with topics of logic, geometry, mathematics, Deductive reasoning|deduction, inductive reasoning|induction, and natural philosophy.

76. Postcolonialism - Characteristics
Post-colonialism is the Critical theory|critical destabilization of the theories (intellectual and linguistic, social and economic) that support the ways of Western thought — Deductive reasoning, the Rule of Law, and Monotheism — by means of which colonialists “perceive”, “understand”, and “know” the world

77. Heinrich Hertz
Hertz is distinguished from Maxwell and Hughes because he was the first to conclusively prove the existence of electromagnetic waves by engineering instruments to transmit and receive radio pulses using Scientific method|experimental procedures that Deductive reasoning|ruled out all other known wireless phenomena.Prof

78. Geometry - History of geometry
He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem

79. Praxeology
'Praxeology' is the Deductive reasoning|deductive study of human Action (philosophy)|action based on the action axiom. The most common use of the term is in connection with the Austrian School|Austrian School of Economics,[ Praxeology: The Methodology of Austrian Economics] as established by economist Ludwig von Mises.

80. Hypotheses - Uses
Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive reasoning)

81. Satanic ritual abuse - False memories
The group of psychiatrists who promoted these ideas, whom McHugh terms Mannerism|Mannerist Freudians, consistently followed a deductive reasoning|deductive approach to diagnosis in which the theory and causal explanation of symptoms was assumed to be childhood sexual abuse leading to dissociation, followed by a set of unproven and unreliable treatments with a strong confirmation bias that inevitably produced the allegations and causes that were assumed to be there

82. Categorical quantum mechanics - Categorical quantum mechanics as logic
Categorical quantum mechanics can also be seen as a type theory|type theoretic form of quantum logic that, in contrast to traditional quantum logic, supports formal deductive reasoning.R. Duncan (2006) Types for Quantum Computing, DPhil. thesis. University of Oxford. There exists [ software] that supports and automates this reasoning.

83. Toy - Puzzles
Puzzles based on the process of inquiry and discovery to complete may be solved faster by those with good Deductive reasoning|deduction skills

84. Insight
*the power of acute observation and Deductive reasoning|deduction, penetration, discernment, perception called intellection or noesis

85. Puzzle
Solutions of puzzles often require the recognition of patterns and the creation of a particular kind of order. People with a high level of inductive reasoning aptitude may be better at solving such puzzles than others. But puzzles based upon inquiry and Discovery (observation)|discovery may be solved more easily by those with good Deductive reasoning|deduction skills. Deductive reasoning improves with practice.

86. Gregory Bateson - Other terms used by Bateson
Used by Bateson to refer to a third scientific methodology (along with Inductive reasoning|induction and Deductive reasoning|deduction) which was central to his own holistic and qualitative approach

87. Weak anthropic principle - Variants
'Strong anthropic principle (SAP)' (Carter): the Universe (and hence the Dimensionless physical constant|fundamental parameters on which it depends) must be such as to admit the creation of observers within it at some stage. To paraphrase Descartes, cogito ergo mundus talis est.The Latin tag (I think, therefore the world is such [as it is]) makes it clear that must indicates a deductive reasoning|deduction from the fact of our existence; the statement is thus a truism.

88. Thales
In mathematics, Thales used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem. As a result, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and is the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed.

89. Grounded theory - Premise
Grounded theory method is a systematic generation of theory from data that contains both Inductive reasoning|inductive and Deductive reasoning|deductive thinking

90. Grounded theory - Strauss Corbin's approach
The research principle behind grounded theory method is neither inductive reasoning|inductive nor deductive reasoning|deductive, but combines both in a way of abductive reasoning (coming from the works of Charles Sanders Peirce)

91. Semiotic - Some important semioticians
He regarded formal semiotic as logic per se and part of philosophy; as also encompassing study of arguments (Abductive reasoning|hypothetical, Deductive reasoning|deductive, and Inductive reasoning|inductive) and inquiry's methods including pragmatism; and as allied to but distinct from logic's pure mathematics

92. Fluid and crystallized intelligence
Fluid intelligence or fluid reasoning is the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge. It is the ability to analyze novel problems, identify patterns and relationships that underpin these problems and the extrapolation of these using logic. It is necessary for all logical problem solving, e.g., in scientific, mathematical, and technical problem solving. Fluid reasoning includes inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

93. Vishishtadvaita - Pramanas
Inference refers to knowledge obtained by deductive reasoning and analysis.

94. Analytical feminism - Approach to debate
Analytical feminists traditionally use an approach of stylistic aggressiveness; they use an proactive manner of arguing to advance their views and often use what has been termed as the adversary method, referring to the outlook of philosophy where the philosopher's job is to build upon general claims, create counterexamples to others claims and use only deductive reasoning in their arguments.

95. Outline of human intelligence - Capacities of intelligence
*** Deductive reasoning

96. Theory of justification
If A makes a claim, and B then casts doubt on it, A's next move would normally be to provide justification. Empiricism (the evidence of the senses), authoritative testimony (the appeal to criteria and authority), and logical Deductive reasoning|deduction are often involved in justification.

97. Common sense - Epistemology: common sense versus claims of certainty
The alternative to induction, deductive reasoning, demanded a mathematical approach, starting from simple and certain assumptions

98. Rhetoric - Aristotle
pathos (the use of emotional appeals to alter the audience's judgment through metaphor, amplification, storytelling, or presenting the topic in a way that evokes strong emotions in the audience.); and, logos (the use of reasoning, either Inductive reasoning|inductive or Deductive reasoning|deductive, to construct an argument).

99. Rhetoric - Aristotle
Aristotle emphasized Deductive reasoning|enthymematic reasoning as central to the process of rhetorical invention, though later rhetorical theorists placed much less emphasis on it. An enthymeme would follow today's form of a syllogism; however it would exclude either the major or minor premise. An enthymeme is persuasive because the audience is providing the missing premise. Because the audience is able to provide the missing premise, they are more likely to be persuaded by the message.

100. Polish philosophy - Scholasticism
Witelo's Perspectiva additionally made important contributions to psychology: it held that visual perception|vision per se apprehends only colors and light while all else, particularly the distance and size of objects, is established by means of association (psychology)|association and unconscious deductive reasoning|deduction.

101. Islamic philosophy - Avicennian logic
While Avicenna ( ) often relied on deductive reasoning in philosophy, he used a different approach in medicine

102. Avicenna - Philosophy of science
Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of How does one acquire the first principles of a science? He asked how a scientist would arrive at the initial axioms or hypothesis|hypotheses of a deductive reasoning|deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises? He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty

103. A.E. van Vogt - Post-war philosophy
He subsequently wrote three novels merging these overarching themes, The World of Null-A and The Pawns of Null-A in the late 1940s, and Null-A Three in the early 1980s. Null-A, or non-Aristotelian logic, refers to the capacity for, and practice of, using Intuition (knowledge)|intuitive, inductive reasoning (compare fuzzy logic), rather than reflexive, or conditioned, deductive reasoning.

104. Rationalism - Background
Proponents of some varieties of rationalism argue that, starting with foundational basic principles, like the axioms of geometry, one could deductive reasoning|deductively derive the rest of all possible knowledge

105. Management Accounting Principles - Historical Timeline ― Establishing Management Accounting Principles
It added a philosophical foundation by using the basic Epistemology of Deductive reasoning and Inductive reasoning and two of the four laws of logic to show that management accounting's two principles are causality and analogy and that they are rooted in a bedrock of truth.

106. Management Accounting Principles - Principles
Principle of Analogy governs the user of management accounting information's ability to apply the knowledge or insights gained from the causal relationships modeled (e.g., in planning, control, what-if analysis) using inductive and deductive reasoning about past and future outcomes for continuous optimization efforts.

107. G factor (psychometrics) - Mental energy or efficiency
However, he thought that the best indicators of g were those tests that reflected what he called the eduction of relations and correlates, which included abilities such as Deductive reasoning|deduction, Inductive reasoning|induction, problem solving, grasping relationships, inferring rules, and spotting differences and similarities

108. Stoicism - Propositional logic
Bobzien also notes that Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with, including speech act theory, sentence analysis, singular and plural expressions, types of Predicate (mathematical logic)|predicates, Indexicality|indexicals, Existential quantification|existential propositions, Logical connective|sentential connectives, negations, Logical disjunction|disjunctions, Conditional proof|conditionals, logical consequence, valid argument forms, Deductive reasoning|theory of deduction, propositional logic, modal logic, tense logic, epistemic logic, Supposition theory|logic of suppositions, Imperative logic|logic of imperatives, ambiguity and logical paradoxes.[ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Susanne Bobzien, Ancient Logic

109. Laissez faire - Critiques
In The End of Laissez-faire (1926), one of the most famous of his critiques, Keynes argues that the doctrines of laissez-faire are dependent to some extent on improper deductive reasoning, and, Keynes says, the question of whether a market solution or state intervention is better must be determined on a case-by-case basis.Dostaler 2007, p

110. École nationale de l'aviation civile - New missions
The university then feels interest for future engineers to learn research methods: while the method of deductive reasoning, for a long time favored by teachers in the classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles and grandes écoles, shows its limitations, the method of inductive reasoning, characteristic of research, appears increasingly better adapted to highly scalable nature of functions performed by nowadays engineers

111. Psychometric Entrance Test - Verbal reasoning
Apart from vocabulary questions the verbal reasoning section contains questions based on deductive reasoning|deductive and inductive reasoning, analogy|analogies, complex multipart sentence completion and reading comprehension.

112. Psychometric Entrance Test - Verbal reasoning
Reading comprehension and Inductive/Deductive reasoning items were found to have a reasonable contribution, with the latter—generally the most difficult type of item—having a notably high predictive contribution regarding students of highly selective undergraduate study programs

113. Chiropractors - Concept
Chiropractors based their work on deductive reasoning|deductions from the profession's historical dogma|doctrine, which made chiropractic easy to distinguish from medicine

114. Scientific - Philosophical turn to human things
In contrast to modern science, Aristotle's influential emphasis was upon the theoretical steps of deductive reasoning|deducing universal rules from raw data, and did not treat the gathering of experience and raw data as part of science itself....[A] man knows a thing scientifically when he possesses a conviction arrived at in a certain way, and when the first principles on which that conviction rests are known to him with certainty—for unless he is more certain of his first principles than of the conclusion drawn from them he will only possess the knowledge in question accidentally.— Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics '6' (H

115. Debate
Debate is a broader form of argument than deductive reasoning, which only examines whether a conclusion is a consequence of premises, and factual argument, which only examines what is or isn't the case, or rhetoric, which is a technique of persuasion

116. Classicism - General term
The court of Louis XIV was seen as the center of this form of classicism, with its references to the gods of Mount Olympus|Olympus as a symbolic prop for absolutism, its adherence to axiomatic and deductive reasoning, and its love of order and predictability.

117. José Ortega y Gasset - Works
* La Idea de principio en Leibniz y la evolución de la teoría deductiva (The Idea of the Beginning in Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz and the evolution of deductive reasoning|deductive theory, 1947, published 1958)

118. Problem of induction - David Hume
David Hume described the problem in An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding, §4, based on his epistemology|epistemological framework. Here, reason refers to deductive reasoning and induction refers to inductive reasoning.

119. Mathematically
Ziman proposed that science is public knowledge, and thus includes mathematics.Ziman Mathematics shares much in common with many fields in the physical sciences, notably the deductive reasoning|exploration of the logical consequences of assumptions

120. Mathematics education - Objectives
* The teaching of selected areas of mathematics (such as Euclidean geometry) as an example of an axiomatic system and a model of deductive reasoning

121. Mathematics education - Methods
* 'Classical education': the teaching of mathematics within the quadrivium, part of the classical education curriculum of the Middle Ages, which was typically based on Euclid's Elements|Euclid's Elements taught as a paradigm of deductive reasoning.

122. Eastern Orthodox - Bible
It is rational and reasoned, but is not arrived at only by means of deductive reasoning.

123. Monadic predicate calculus - Relationship with term logic
The need to go beyond monadic logic was not appreciated until the work on the logic of Relation (mathematics)|relations, by Augustus DeMorgan and Charles Sanders Peirce in the nineteenth century, and by Frege in his 1879 Begriffsschrifft. Prior to the work of these three men, term logic (syllogistic logic) was widely considered adequate for formal deductive reasoning.

124. Logical
Logic is often divided into three parts: inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning.

125. World view - Philosophy
Mathematical logic showed that fundamental choices of axioms were essential in deductive reasoningNot just in the obvious sense that you need axioms to prove anything, but the fact that for example the Axiom of choice and Axiom S5, although widely regarded as correct, were in some sense optional

126. Falsifiable - Economics
Some economists, such as those of the Austrian School, believe that macroeconomics is Empiricism|empirically unfalsifiable and that thus the only appropriate means to understand economic events is by deductive reasoning|logically studying Subjective theory of value|the intentions of methodological individualism|individual economic decision-makers, Praxeology#Austrian School approach|based on certain fundamental Action axiom|truths.[ Austrian School of Economics: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics | Library of Economics and Liberty][ Methodological Individualism at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ]Ludwig von Mises

127. Paranormal - Psychology
A Psychology|psychological study involving 174 members of the Society for Psychical Research completed a delusional ideation questionnaire and a deductive reasoning task

128. Psychological research - Experimental methods
The field of psychology commonly uses experimental methods in what is known as experimental psychology. Researchers design experiments to test specific Hypothesis|hypotheses (the deductive reasoning|deductive approach), or to evaluate functional relationships (the inductive reasoning|inductive approach).

129. House (TV series) - References to Sherlock Holmes
The resemblance is evident in House's reliance on deductive reasoning and psychology, even where it might not seem obviously applicable, and his reluctance to accept cases he finds uninteresting

130. Syllogism
A 'syllogism' (– syllogismos – conclusion, inference) is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a Logical consequence|conclusion based on two or more propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true.

131. Syllogism - Early history
From the Middle Ages onwards, categorical syllogism and syllogism were usually used interchangeably. This article is concerned only with this traditional use. The syllogism was at the core of traditional deductive reasoning, where facts are determined by combining existing statements, in contrast to inductive reasoning where facts are determined by repeated observations.

132. Scientific Revolution - Empiricism
Bacon's philosophy of using an Induction (philosophy)|inductive approach to nature—to abandon assumption and to attempt to simply observe with an open mind—was in strict contrast with the earlier, Aristotelian approach of deductive reasoning|deduction, by which analysis of known facts produced further understanding

133. Arguments - Standard argument types
A Deductive reasoning|deductive argument asserts that the truth of the conclusion is a logical consequence of the premises

134. Fallacy - Deductive fallacy
In philosophy, the term formal fallacy for 'logical fallacies' and defined formally as: a flaw in the structure of a deductive reasoning|deductive logical argument|argument which renders the argument validity|invalid. The term is preferred as logic is the use of valid reasoning and a fallacy is an argument that uses poor reasoning therefore the term 'logical fallacy' is an oxymoron. However, the same terms are used in informal discourse to mean an argument which is problematic for any reason.

135. Deductive system
Such a deductive system is intended to preserve deductive reasoning|deductive qualities in the formula (mathematical logic)|formulas that are expressed in the system. Usually the quality we are concerned with is truth as opposed to falsehood. However, other modal logic|modalities, such as Theory of justification|justification or belief may be preserved instead.

136. Propositional formula - Usefulness of propositional formulas
'Analysis': In deductive reasoning, philosophers, rhetoricians and mathematicians reduce arguments to formulas and then study them (usually with truth tables) for correctness (soundness). For example: Is the following argument sound?

137. Rule of inference - Example: Hilbert systems for two propositional logics
There is however a distinction worth emphasizing even in this case: the first notation describes a Deductive reasoning|deduction, that is an activity of passing from sentences to sentences, whereas A → B is simply a formula made with a logical connective, implication in this case

138. Argumentation ethics
He describes his argument as a strictly logical, value-free consequence of sound deductive reasoning

139. Axiomatic system - Axiomatization
In mathematics, 'axiomatization' is the formulation of a system of statements (i.e. axioms) that relate a number of primitive terms in order that a consistency proof|consistent body of Boolean-valued function | propositions may be derived deductive reasoning|deductively from these statements. Thereafter, the mathematical proof|proof of any proposition should be, in principle, traceable back to these axioms.

140. Freedom of choice - Measuring freedom of choice
The Axiomatic system|axiomatic-Deductive reasoning|deductive approach has been used to address the issue of measuring the amount of freedom of choice (FoC) an individual enjoys. In a 1990 paper, Prasanta K. Pattanaik and Yongsheng Xu presented three conditions that a measurement of FoC should satisfy:

141. Natural deduction
In logic and proof theory, 'natural deduction' is a kind of proof calculus in which logical reasoning is expressed by inference rules closely related to the natural way of reasoning. This contrasts with the axiomatic systems which instead use axioms as much as possible to express the logical laws of deductive reasoning.

142. Natural deduction - Motivation
Natural deduction grew out of a context of dissatisfaction with the axiomatizations of deductive reasoning common to the systems of David Hilbert|Hilbert, Gottlob Frege|Frege, and Bertrand Russell|Russell (see, e.g., Hilbert system)

143. Non-fiction - Major types of non-fiction
Some non-fiction may include elements of unverified supposition, Deductive reasoning|deduction, or imagination for the purpose of smoothing out a narrative, but the inclusion of open falsehoods would discredit it as a work of non-fiction

144. Abduction (logic)
In abductive reasoning, unlike in deductive reasoning, the premises do not guarantee the conclusion

145. Existence of God
Anselm, who formulated the first ontological argument; ibn Rushd|Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Aquinas, who presented their own versions of the cosmological argument (the Kalam argument|kalam argument and the Quinque viae|first way, respectively); Descartes, who said that the existence of a benevolent God was logically necessary for the evidence of the senses to be meaningful; and Immanuel Kant, who argued that the existence of God can be Deductive reasoning|deduced from the existence of good and evil|good

146. Existence of God - Epistemology
Knowledge in the sense of understanding of a fact or truth can be divided into a posteriori knowledge, based on experience or deductive reasoning|deduction (see methodology), and a priori and a posteriori|a priori knowledge from introspection, axioms, or self-evidence

147. Existence of God - Deductive arguments
Deductive arguments attempt to prove their conclusions by deductive reasoning from true premises.

148. Sherlock Holmes - Holmesian deduction
Deductive reasoning allows Holmes to impressively reveal a stranger's occupation, such as a Retired Sergeant of Marines in A Study in Scarlet; a former ship's carpenter turned pawnbroker in The Red-Headed League; and a billiard-marker and a retired artillery NCO in The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter

149. Abundance of the chemical elements - Abundance of elements in the Universe
The rest is made up of dark energy (72%) and dark matter (23%).[ WMAP- Content of the Universe] The latter are forms of matter and energy believed to exist on the basis of scientific theory|theory and observational Deductive reasoning|deductions, but their details are still the subject of research

150. Evi (software) - Core technology premise
As these facts are stored in a form that the computer can understand, the answer engine attempts to produce an answer to what it comprehends to be the question by logically Deductive reasoning|deducing from them

151. History of electromagnetic theory - End of the 19th century
Thomson's meaning of the word when they employ mathematics to assist them, he wrote to find out the connections of known phenomena, and by deductive reasoning, to obtain a knowledge of electromagnetic phenomena

152. Eastern Orthodox Church - Bible
It is rational and reasoned, but is not arrived at only by means of deductive reasoning.

153. Islamic inheritance jurisprudence - Later development
Through the use of deductive reasoning (Qiyas), Muslim jurists added three additional heirs: the paternal grandfather, maternal grandmother, and agnatic granddaughter

154. Alfred Gell - Thought
In this way for Gell works of art, in all cultures, are able to create shared common sense, especially through reasoning with abductive reasoning|abduction, which already in Aristotle is a less strong inference than 'inductive reasoning|induction and deductive reasoning|deduction, more intuitive and concise

155. Opticks - Overview
Opticks is largely a record of experiments and the Deductive reasoning|deductions made from them, covering a wide range of topics in what was later to be known as physical optics

156. Opticks - Reception
Newtonian science became a central issue in the assault waged by the philosophes in the Age of Enlightenment against a natural philosophy based on the authority of ancient Greek or Roman naturalists or on deductive reasoning from first principles (the method advocated by French philosopher René Descartes), rather than on the application of mathematical reasoning to experience or experiment

157. Gnosiology - Eastern Orthodox theology
memory (abstract knowledge derived from experimentation being episteme or teachable knowledge), experience Inductive reasoning|induction (or empiricism), Deductive reasoning|deduction (or rationalism), scientific abductive reasoning, contemplation (theoria), Metaphysics|metaphysical and instinctual or Intuition (knowledge)|intuitive knowledge

158. Cosmological argument - What caused the First Cause?
However, as to whether inductive or deductive reasoning is more valuable still remains a matter of debate, with the general conclusion being that neither is prominent

159. Crime scene - Reconstruction
Crime reconstruction|Crime scene reconstruction is the use of scientific methods, physical evidence, deductive reasoning, and their interrelationships to gain explicit knowledge of the series of events that surround the commission of a crime.

160. History of scientific method - Early methodology
Towards the middle of the 5th century BC, some of the components of a scientific tradition were already heavily established, even before Plato, who was an important contributor to this emerging tradition, thanks to the development of deductive reasoning, as propounded by his student, Aristotle

161. History of scientific method - Aristotelian science and empiricism
It was therefore the work of the philosopher to demonstrate universal truths and to discover their causes.See Nominalism#The problem of universals for several approaches to this goal. While induction was sufficient for discovering universals by generalization, it did not succeed in identifying causes. The tool Aristotle used for this was deductive reasoning in the form of syllogisms. Using the syllogism, scientists could infer new universal truths from those already established.

162. History of scientific method - Avicenna
Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper procedure for scientific inquiry and the question of How does one acquire the first principles of a science? He asked how a scientist might find the initial axioms or Hypothesis|hypotheses of a Deductive reasoning|deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises? He explained that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty

163. History of scientific method - Francis Bacon's eliminative induction
In Bacon's utopia|utopian novel, The New Atlantis, the ultimate role is given for deductive reasoning:

164. History of scientific method - Integrating deductive and inductive method
When it is not clear under which law of nature an effect or class of effect belongs, we try to fill this gap by means of a guess. Such guesses have been given the name conjectures or hypotheses. – Hans Christian Ørsted(1811) First Introduction to General Physics ¶18. Selected Scientific Works of Hans Christian Ørsted, ISBN p. 297 Deductive reasoning|deduction

165. History of scientific method - Charles Sanders Peirce
Peirce examined and articulated the three fundamental modes of reasoning that play a role in scientific inquiry today, the processes that are currently known as abductive reasoning|abductive, deductive reasoning|deductive, and inductive reasoning|inductive inference

166. History of scientific method - Popper and Kuhn
Following Peirce and others, he argued that science would best progress using deductive reasoning as its primary emphasis, known as critical rationalism

167. For More Information, Visit:
The Art of Service