Boolean, bibliometrics, and beyond

Boolean, bibliometrics, and beyond
Part 2 Let’s continue. LIS 670 donna Bair-Mundy

Bibliometrics Let's now turn our attention to the field of bibliometrics. This will lead us to some other methodologies for finding and assessing the relevancy of documents.

Bibliometrics – a defintion
Using quantitative analysis and statistics to examine patterns in academic publishing, now including information transmitted via the World Wide Web There are a variety of definitions for bibliometrics, none of which totally encompass what the field comprises. For our purposes let’s just say that it is a field that uses quantitative analysis and statistics to look at patterns in academic publishing. Whereas it began by looking at printed publications, it now includes analysis of scholarly communications transmitted via the medium of the World Wide Web.

Bibliometrics – what it looks at
Author productivity Citation analysis – impact factors, indexing Obsolescence of information resources – half-life of articles Dispersion of articles in certain fields Word frequencies In bibliometrics some of the things we study are: Author productivity in a variety of fields. Citation analysis to determine the impact of journals and to index articles in a way that avoids the problem of shifting terminology Obsolescence of information resources– for example, determining the half-life of journal articles in a particular field. This affects our de-selection (weeding) policies, when we get rid of journals or, perhaps more often, when we send our older journals to external storage sites to make room for more current materials. It can also affect decisions we make concerning which electronic databases we subscribe to, how far back our coverage should be. Dispersion of articles in certain fields across journals. This helps us to find key journals in the field. We also look at word frequencies within articles in order to improve our indexing capabilities.

Bibliometrics – Purposes (1)
Physics  Astrophysics Biophysics Subatomic particle physics Provide evolutionary models of science, technology, and scholarship Invisible colleges Structure of scholarly disciplines There are a variety of reasons why people perform bibliometric studies: One is to provide evolutionary models of science, technology, and scholarship To this end we study: Invisible colleges—how is information disseminated through communication networks among scholars Structure of scholarly disciplines Evolution of a discipline over time—for example, what has happened to the field of physics over the past 100 years? Monolithic structurebifurcating into various subdisciplines Evolution of concepts—e.g., “global warming” (when was the concept proposed; who is talking about it now) Evolution of a discipline over time Global warming Evolution of concepts

Bibliometrics – Purposes (2)
Assist development of information retrieval methodologies Provide tools for studying information use and impact Other purposes are to assist in the development of new information retrieval methodologies and to provide tools for studying information use and impact in order to both understand and facilitate the information seeking activities of our users. It also assists us in the selection and deselection of information resources in our libraries. Assist in selection and deselection of resources

Properties of scientific literature
Fragmentary - each paper contributes a small piece to the puzzle under study Derivative - scientific papers rely heavily on previous research (acknowledged in citations) The beginnings of bibliometrics are found in the analysis of scientific publications. This is because such analysis was facilitated by the nature of scientific literature. In science, although some theoretical works have a larger scope, in general each research paper contributes a small piece of the puzzle under study. For example, a paper may delineate the results of a study of a single enzyme acting on a cell membrane on a single organ in a particular species. The scientific endeavor is also derivative. Whereas the term "derivative" is considered pejorative in the arts, scientists readily acknowledge their debts to the work of their predecessors in the form of citations to previous works. In addition, scientific papers must go through a vetting process in which they are judged by a team of anonymous referees who are considered to be experts in the field before being accepted for publication. Edited - peer reviewed by anonymous referees

Evolution of a discipline
Cole and Eales The history of comparative anatomy—a statistical analysis of the literature Purpose: "to reduce to geometric form the activities of the corporate body of anatomical research, and the relative importances from time to time of each country and division of the subject" Looked at 6,436 publications dealing with animal anatomy for the period 1543 to 1860 One of the things that bibliometrics researchers look at is the evolution of disciplines. This started early on. One of the early works now considered to be pioneering in the field of bibliometrics, although done years before the term "bibliometrics" was coined, researchers named Cole and Eales performed a statistical analysis of scientific literature. They looked at the literature of a discipline—comparative anatomy—to better understand the development of that discipline. To do this they studied over 6,000 publications dating from the year 1543 to 1860. Published in: Sci. Progr. 11:

Evolution of a discipline
Cole and Eales The history of comparative anatomy—a statistical analysis of the literature When were the periods of greater or less importance; Where were the centers of activity at any given time? As the field grew, how and when did it begin to be subdivided into narrower fields? They were looking to see when were the periods of greater or less importance; where were the centers of activity at any given time? As the field grew, how and when did it begin to be subdivided into narrower fields? They were looking at publications in the field to tell us something about the field itself. Looking at publications within a field to tell us about the field itself

Evolution of a discipline: IS
Harmon, Glynn – On the evolution of information science. JASIS 22(4): Emergence and development of information science Relationships and roles of information science within potentially emergent suprasystem of knowledge Such research has continued. Here, for example, is an article about the emergence and development of information science.

Science, politics, and economics
E. Wyndham Hulme Statistical bibliography in relation to the growth of modern civilization First to use the term "statistical bibliography" Purpose: "to ascertain and illustrate by bibliographical data, various stages in the development of the mechanics of civilization" Wyndham Hulme was the first person to use the term "statistical bibliography," the term used to describe the field of bibliometrics before the word "bibliometrics" was coined. The purpose of statistical bibliography was "to ascertain and illustrate by bibliographical data, various stages in the development of the mechanics of civilization." While our goals today might be slightly less grandiose, the field of bibliometrics today is an outgrowth of the early studies such as this one, so let's take a brief look at his methodology and conclusions. Published by Butler and Tanner Grafton (London)

Hulme (cont’d) Used 13 annual issues of The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, from 1901 to 1913 Counted author entries for various subjects In this study, the author used 13 annual issues of The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, from 1901 to 1913. He counted the author entries for a variety of subjects, graphing the information. Then he tabulated the number of journals by country of publication, listing the countries in order of productivity in terms of the number of journals in the index. Tabulated number of indexed journals by countries (which countries are highly productive in science?)

Hulme (cont’d) Felt that subject division in a discipline was a sign of growth Concluded that scientific publication output is influenced by population change and political and economic movements Looking at his data, Hulme felt that subject division in a particular discipline was a sign of the growth of that discipline. Using statistical analysis, he concluded that scientific publication output is influenced by a number of factors, including population change and political and economic movements. [click] Takes money to do modern science.

Research output by countries
J. Martin van Zyl 2013 – The generalized Pareto distribution fitted to research ouoputs of countries Scientometrics 94(3): Which continent (besides Antarctica) is not represented? Why might that be? Here is data from a more recent article that dealt with research output of countries. It looked not only at documents published but the citedness of the publications of the various countries studies, which gives us an idea of whether or not the publications are being read. On the screen are the 25 most productive countries. [click] Besides Antarctica, Which continent is missing? Why would that be? What might be the consequences? Why might be the consequences?

Cost of research The relationship between wealth and science is particularly evident in large projects like the huge atom collider recently built in Europe. The United States is a wealth country so it funds quite a bit of research. The poorer countries of Africa or South America simply don’t have budgets to fund expensive research projects. Thus can result in less of a footprint in the scientific literature of some fields. The question then becomes: will the problems faced by these poorer countries get the attention of the global research community?

Consequences ebola 722 results ebolavirus 984 results aids hiv
Just to illustrate what some of the consequences might be... [click] I did a quick search in medline for documents with the word “ebola” in the subject heading. [click] I got 722 results. [click] Then I did a search on “ebolavirus” [click] [click] and got 984 results [click] [click] Compare that to a search on the “aids” in the subject heading [click] and got 122,722 results [click] [click] And a search on hiv [click] got 196,414 results. Why the difference? hiv 122,722 results 196,414 results

Published in: J. Washington Acad. Sci. 16:317-325.
Author productivity Alfred J. Lotka Statistics—the frequency distribution of scientific productivity Purpose: to "determine, if possible, the part which men of different calibre contribute to the progress of science" Alfred Lotka was a statistician with the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company He set out to "determine, if possible, the part which men of different calibre contribute to the progress of science." To do this he looked at listings in the Chemical Abstracts Index during the years 1907 to 1916 and Auerbach's Geschichtstafeln der Physik (my apologies to any German speakers among you) through the year 1900. Today we would not use the same terminology. We don't speak of "men of different calibre." However, we still look at author productivity. You'll find Lotka's law referred to in many articles in information science literature. Looked at Chemical Abstracts Index, then Geschichtstafeln der Physik Published in: J. Washington Acad. Sci. 16:

Lotka's Law The total number of authors y in a given subject, each producing x publications, is inversely proportional to some exponential function n of x. Lotka's law is basically this: The total number of authors y in a given subject, each producing x publications, is inversely proportional to some exponential function n of x.

Lotka's Law - scientific publications
Inverse square law of scientific productivity Where: x = number of publications y = number of authors credited with x publications n = constant (equals 2 for scientific subjects) C = constant xn • y = C Lotka's law is also referred to as the inverse square law of scientific productivity. This is what the formula looks like mathematically.

Lotka's Law - scientific publications
No. of authors Basically what this means is that in a given field a very large percentage of authors produce only one paper, fewer authors produce two papers, and so forth. Only a small number of authors produce a substantial number of publications. This law is still used in research in bibliometrics. For example, Egghe and Rao in an article in the August 2002 issue of JASIST worked on applying Lotka's law in cases where there are multiple authors of a single journal article. They referred to their analysis as fractional frequency distributions. Interest in author productivity is still a major focus in our literature. In the world of Library and Information Science, programs are judged in part on the basis of the publication productivity of the faculty--a measure in which the UH LIS program ranks highly. xn • y = C

Relative impacts of journals
Gross & Gross College libraries and chemical education Purpose: Select appropriate journals for a chemical library to provide good education for students Which journals to collect? Tabulated 3,633 citations found in the 1926 volume of the Journal of the American Chemical Society Paul and E.M. Gross, a husband and wife team, sought to use statistical analysis to determine which periodicals should be purchased for a small college chemical library to best prepare students for graduate school work. They decided that citations to a journal would indicate the relative importance of that journal in the field. To this end they tabulated 3,633 citations found in the 1926 volume of the Journal of the American Chemical Society for 247 different periodicals or journals. Tabulations made for 5-year periods from 1871 to 1925 and trends were traced from the tabulations. This study is important historically because it used citations to a journal, rather simple journal, article or author counts, in the analysis of publications. This article has been the basis for many later investigations. First use of citation analysis rather than publication counts Published in: Science 66:

Journal Citation Reports “JCR is still the only usable tool to rank thousands of scholarly and professional journals...” PETER JACSO You don’t have to tabulate over 6,000 citations today. Instead you go to a journal called Journal Citation Reports, which is available through the UH website.

Journal Citation Reports When you access JCR through the UH library website you get a screen that looks like this. If you select JRS Science Edition and 2009 and hit submit you get...

Journal Citation Reports You get a screen where you select a subject category.

Journal Citation Reports And then you get a listing of journals in that area of research, along with information about how many articles each journal published during a particular period, the citedness (impact factor), and the cited half-life—how long do people continue to cite articles in this journal? “Journal Cited Half-Life The median age of the articles that were cited in the JCR year. Half of a journal's cited articles were published more recently than the cited half-life. For example, in JCR 2001 the journal Crystal Research and Technology has a cited half-life of 7.0. That means that articles published in Crystal Research and Technology between (inclusive) account for 50% of all citations to articles from that journal in 2001.”

Journal Citation Reports If you go to the help file you get information about what all these numbers mean.

Published in: Science 122:108-111.
Citation Indexing Eugene Garfield Citation indexes for science: a new dimension in documentation through association of ideas Impact factor Influence of an article based on citations to it One of the major names in the field of bibliometrics is Eugene Garfield. Dr. Garfield's research has focused on scientific communication and information science but his work has broader implications for virtually every scholarly discipline. In the early 1950s Dr. Garfield was part of the Welch Medical Indexing Project at Johns Hopkins University. This project was eventually to give us MESH, the medical subject headings, and Index Medicus, now available online as Medline. Dr. Garfield was instrumental in the genesis of Current Contents, a current awareness publication for the sciences that is now published in seven discipline-specific editions. One of the contributions Dr. Garfield is known for in information science is the concept of the "impact factor" of an article or journal. This impact factor, as first posited in his 1955 article in Science, can be computed by examining the citations to the work. But probably the most important contribution of Eugene Garfield to the world of science and to scholarly research in general is that of the Science Citation Index. Science Citation Index Published in: Science 122:

Problems of indexing The interrelationship between the chemistry and the biological organisms of the soils of Cambodia. The soil ecology of Kampuchea To illustrate the importance of the Science Citation Index, as well as how it works, consider the two fictional article titles on the screen. If an author were to write about the interrelationship between chemistry and the biological organisms in Cambodia in the 1950s, he or she would probably have used the terminology presented here. But if an author were to write about the same topic forty years later, he or she would utilize newer scientific terminology and would use the newer name for the country. Same topic. Different terminology. Now consider how these documents would be key-word indexed. If a user found the newer article and wished to explore earlier investigations on the same topic, the user might do a keyword search on soil, ecology, and Kampuchea. Because neither the word "ecology" nor "Kampuchea" was used in the earlier article, that article would not be retrieved. 1955 1995

Citation matrix article citing article citing cited article article
Now let's look at the notion of a citation matrix. If you look at any given scientific article, you will find that it cites previous articles--articles that the authors found relevant, articles that the current authors are building upon or refuting In turn, the current article may be cited in future articles. And these citing articles may themselves be cited by articles down the line. The assumption is that the articles cited, the article in question, and the citing articles deal with the same subject area, the same topic, even if they use different terminology to describe that topic. Dr. Garfield's idea was to use the relationships of the citation matrix to index scientific publications. citing article citing article cited article citing article

ISI Web of Science (1) The Science Citation Index is now available on the Web through the UH Library site, and is now called the ISI Web of Science. If we look up a recent article by Eugene Garfield on journal impact factor, we are given the number of references Dr. Garfield cited in the article. We are also given the number of times this article has been cited. Let's first click on the link to the cited references.

ISI Web of Science (2) Clicking on the "cited reference" link gives us a listing of the articles Dr. Garfield cited. We could then click on one of these articles to find out which articles this author cited. This would take us back in time along the subject thread. Let's return to our Garfield article.

ISI Web of Science (3) This time let's click on "times cited."

ISI Web of Science (4) Clicking on "times cited" gives us a list of the publications that cited Dr. Garfield's article. Let's click on one of these citing articles.

ISI Web of Science (5) Here we get information about the citing article, as well as a link to an article that cited this one.

Science Citation Index
Association-of-ideas index citing article citing article cited article citing article article citing article cited article As we clicked through the citing article links, we moved forward through the citation matrix, in this way finding later articles on the same topic as our initial article. It does not matter if the terminology changes over time. We can follow the citation matrix to find older or newer works on the same topic. citing article citing article cited article citing article

Co-citation analysis article
Articles that cite the same article are likely to both be of interest to the reader of the cited article citing article article We can also use the Web of Science to do co-citation analysis. This operates on the assumption that two articles that cite the same article are likely to be related. Again, the authors may not be using the same terminology in writing about a phenomenon but the fact that they cited the same article suggests that they may be writing about the same topic. These two articles are likely to be related citing article

Selecting productive journals
Samuel Clement Bradford Sources of information on specific subjects Purpose: to develop a means by which librarians could select the most usable periodicals First paper published on observations of scattering A name you will frequently see in readings on bibliometrics is that of Samuel Bradford. Bradford was also looking for a quantitative means on which to base periodical selection. When he looked at abstracting and indexing journals, he found that there was an unequal distribution of articles on a given topic across journals in certain fields. Looking at data collected by E. Lancaster Jones from bibliographies of Applied Geophysics and Lubrication, Bradford sought to explain the dispersion of journal articles within specific fields. The statement he formulated regarding journal distribution has come to be known as Bradford's Law of Scattering. Later, Eugene Garfield was to discover that Bradford's Law was also true for science journals as a whole. Bradford's Law Published in: Engineering 137:85-86

Bradford's Law of Scattering (1)
"If scientific journals are arranged in order of decreasing productivity of articles on a given subject, they may be divided into a nucleus of periodicals more particularly devoted to the subject and several groups or zones containing the same number of articles as the nucleus, when the numbers of periodicals in the nucleus and succeeding zones will be as a : n : n2 : n3 …" Bradford found that "The references are scattered throughout all periodicals with a frequency approximately related inversely to the scope." He formulated the detailed law you seen on the screen: If scientific journals are arranged in order of decreasing productivity of articles on a given subject, they may be divided into a nucleus of periodicals more particularly devoted to the subject and several groups or zones containing the same number of articles as the nucleus, when the numbers of periodicals in the nucleus and succeeding zones will be as a : n : n2 : n3. Let's look at some sample numbers to see what this looks like.

No. of source journals 1 2 4 10 7 5 No. of articles per source 60 35 30 25 9 8 6 5 4 3 Total no. of articles 60 70 30 50 18 32 35 20 15 3 130 9 130 Let's say we're looking at articles on a given subject that appeared in journals over a six month period. Each line represents one or more journals. The most productive journals are listed at the top of the list, and other journals are listed in order of decreasing productivity as you continue down the screen. If we look at the top listing, this is a journal that published 60 articles on the topic during the period. On the next line we see that there are two journals, each of which published 35 articles on the topic. If you add the number of articles that appeared in these first three journals, you find that they published a total of 130 articles. Now look at the next group of journals. The top journal of the next tier published 30 articles, the next two journals produced 25 articles each, and so forth. If you add the articles produced by journals in this grouping you see that there are But those 130 articles are scattered across 9 journals. Now look at the third tier. In the third tier 130 articles are scattered across 27 journals. If you look at the number of journals in each tier, you see the relationship that Bradford delineated in his law. In the first tier you have 3 journals. In the second tier you have 9 (which is 32) journals; and in the third tier you have 27 (which is 33) journals. 27 130

3 sources 130 articles In terms of periodical selection for our libraries, if we wish to cover a particular area, say bioengineering, there will be a core nucleus of journals that will be highly productive in terms of articles related to that area. Then there will be another tier that will be exponentially less productive. And a third tier that will be another order less productive than the second. The analytical tools of bibliometrics allow us to determine which journals are the most productive in a given area, thus allowing us to make informed decisions in our collection development. When times are flush we may be able to subscribe to them all. As budgets contract we want to keep the most productive journals in the area to support the research at our institutions. 9 sources 130 articles 27 sources 130 articles

George Kingsley Zipf 1935 Frequency distributions of words Two laws
The psycho-biology of language: an introduction to dynamic philology Frequency distributions of words Two laws Less frequently occurring words Frequently occurring words In 1935 George Zipf wrote a book entitled The psycho-biology of language: an introduction to dynamic philology. In the preface of this book he presented the kernel of what later would be referred to as Zipf's law. Zipf was looking at the frequency distribution of words. In later publications he would develop two laws with formulae to describe frequency distribution for both frequently-occurring and less-frequently-occurring words. Published by MIT Press

Zipf's Law of High Frequency Words
Proposed in 1949 by George Kingsley Zipf Where: r = rank (in terms of frequency) f = frequency (no. of times the given word is used in the text) c = constant for the given text r • f = c This is Zipf's law for high-frequency words. Where r represents the rank of a word in terms of frequency, and f is the number of times the given word is used in the text, r times f for any word will equal a constant for the given text. For a given text the rank of a word multiplied by the frequency is a constant.

Application of Zipf's laws
William Goffman - automatic indexing Determine transition point between high- and low-frequency words Collect equal number of words above and below the transition point Some have proposed to utilize Zipf's laws in creating automatic indexing algorithms. One such method is to first determine the transition point between high- and low-frequency words. Then collect an equal number of words ranked above and below the transition point. They then eliminate trivial words using a stop list. The remaining words tend to be content-bearing words that indicate the contents of the document. These words are then used to index the document under analysis. Eliminate trivial words using stop list Remaining content-bearing words indicate document contents

Obsolescence of resources
Charles F. Gosnell Obsolescence of books in college libraries Purpose: "to discover lines of trend or curves of distribution by means of which this rate of obsolescence may be expressed in mathematical form" While others were using algorithms to determine which publications to collect, the findings of authors like Charles Gosnell help us to determine what to discard or put into less accessible areas such as remote storage sites. Gosnell sought "to discover lines of trend or curves of distribution by means of which this rate of obsolescence may be expressed in mathematical form" Gosnell used for his analysis lists of books for college libraries: Shaw List (1931), Mohrhardt List (1937), Shaw supplement (1940). Using statistical analysis, he developed a curve of obsolescence for books. "Books represent one of the higher forms of culture and the rate at which they are discarded and replaced may give some suggestion as to the rate of evolution of the general culture of which they form a part." While we generally don't use obsolescence data for that purpose today, we do use such data in making decisions about our collections. Published in: College Res. Libr. 5:

Curve of obsolescence Number of users Age at time of use
Basically, obsolescence holds that materials lose their usefulness or reliability over time. Although the curve of obsolescence generally looks like the one on your screen, the rate at which works become obsolete varies by discipline. Computer science—blink of an eye. Math—centuries. When to wee. When to send to storage. Age at time of use

Published in: Journal of Documentation 25(4):348-349
Alan Pritchard 1969 Statistical bibliography or bibliometrics? Coined the term "bibliometrics" "the application of mathematics and statistical methods to books and other media of communication" A brief historical note before we leave bibliometrics. The actual term "bibliometrics" was coined by Alan Pritchard in 1969. Published in: Journal of Documentation 25(4):

Google indexing criteria
Text within page being indexed to determine topic Links to page being indexed Anchor text of links to page being indexed (indication of topic) Weight links to page being indexed by links to the linking pages One of the current uses of Eugene Garfield's ideas is that of the indexing algorithms of Google. The Google indexing program looks at the text within a Web page being indexed to the determine topic. It then looks at links to the page being indexed. It parses the anchor text of the links to the page being indexed to get an additional indication of the topic of the page. Then it weights links to the page being indexed by the number of links to the linking pages. “For a good explanation of Bradford’s Law of Scattering see...”

Google Treating links as citations to compute PageRank
high-weight linkage This is a diagram of a linkage structure. Google basically treats the linkage structure like a citation matrix. Links give an indication as to what the page is about. In addition, each link to a page is considered a vote for that page. But not all links are considered equal. A vote (link) by a page with lots of links to it is given greater weight than a vote (link) by a page with few or no links to it. In the diagram the purple page has many links to it. Thus a link by this page to another would be given strong weight. The dark pink page has few links to it. Thus a link by this page to another would be given lower weight. The Google search engine uses weighted linkage to determine the order in which search results are presented. low-weight linkage

Information uncovered through bibliometrics is now being presented in knowledge visualization projects. What we see here is a visualization of the citation history of an article. Citation tree rings represent the citation history of an article. The color of a citation ring denotes the time of corresponding citations. The thickness of a ring is proportional to the number of citations in a given time slice. Chen, C CiteSpace II: detecting and visualizing emerging trends and transient patterns in scientific literature. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 57(3):

Bibliometrics in Action
Visualizations of bibliometric research is also being used to chart changes in particular fields. This is a time-zone view of of mass-extinction research showing citation clusters. This one is a bit hard to decipher visually. A time-zone view of mass-extinction research. Chen, C CiteSpace II: detecting and visualizing emerging trends and transient patterns in scientific literature. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 57(3):

This one is easier to read.
This is a visualization of co-citation networks for works in the field of superstring in theoretical physics. Clusters of the same color represent co-citations made within the same time slice. Two major “superstring revolutions” shown in mid-1980s and mid-1990s. [click] You can see one of the major turning points here. Source: Chen, Chaomei Searching for intellectual turning points: Progressive knowledge domain visualization. PNAS 101(suppl 1):

Adding bibliometric visualizations to digital library search results
Further uses of bibliometric data are in the research pipeline. This is from an article proposing that digital libraries add bibliometric visualizations to digital library research results. The figure here is a co-citation structure matrix of XML literature retrieved from a digital library that includes citation data. The authors are hoping that this could be incorporated into digital library retrieval systems. The authors call their BIRS (bibliometric information retrieval system). Source: Strotmann, Andreas and Dangzhi Zao Bibliometric factor maps for knowledge discovery in digital libraries. Rethinking Electronic Publishing: Innovation in Communication Paradigms and Technologies - Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Electronic Publishing held in Milano, Italy June 2009 / Edited by: Susanna Mornati and Turid Hedlund. ISBN , 2009, pp

Adding bibliometric visualizations to digital library search results
This is the same co-citation analysis after pruning. Using this visualization you can see who has cited an article, and whether it served as a hub that then lead to various paths of research on a topic. This could help a user in his or her determination of the importance of the article as well as the relevance of the work to the user’s information needs. And that’s a primary reason for doing bibliometric research. To help bring our users and our resources together in such a way as to ameliorate our users’ information needs.

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