1. Myers’ Psychology for AP* David G. Myers *AP is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product. Some PowerPoint Presentation Slides by Kent Korek Germantown High School Worth Publishers, © 2010 Unit 6: LEARNING

2. OBJECTIVES:The student will know and understand the Learning demonstrates how we make changes in our behavior through experience with the environment, usually focusing on classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, and cognitive learning. After completing their study of this chapter, students should be able to: 1)discuss the importance of learning and the process of learning associations 2) describe the general process of classical conditioning as demonstrated by Pavlov’s experiments 3) explain the processes of acquisition extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination

3. 4) discuss the importance of cognitive processes and biological predispositions in classical conditioning 5) explain the importance of Pavlov’s work, and describe how it might apply to an understanding of human health and well-being 6) describe the process of operant conditioning, including the procedure of shaping, as demonstrated by Skinner’s experiments 7)identify the different types of reinforcers, and describe the major schedules of partial reinforcement 8) discuss the effects of punishment on behavior

4. 9) discuss the importance of cognitive processes and biological predispositions in operant conditioning 10) explain why Skinner’s ideas were controversial, and describe some major applications of operant conditioning 11) describe the process of observational learning as demonstrated by Bandura’s experiments, and discuss the impact of antisocial and prosocial modeling.

5. Introduction zLearning zHabituation zAssociative learning yClassical conditioning yOperant conditioning yObservational learning

6. Learning z Learning yrelatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience yexperience (nurture) is the key to learning

7. Habituation an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it. Prairie dogs will sound an alarm when large mammals or snakes approach. However, when they are located near humans they do not sound alarms as it would be a waste of energy. They have become habituated to humans. http://www.animalbehavioronline.com/habituation.html

8. Associative Learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).

9. Association zWe learn by association yOur minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence yAristotle 2000 years ago yJohn Locke and David Hume 200 yrs ago

10. Association zLearning to associate two events Event 1Event 2 Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

11. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning zWe learn to associate two stimuli

12. Operant Conditioning We learn to associate a response and its consequence

13. Classical Conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

14. Classical Conditioning  Ivan Pavlov  1849-1936  Russian physician/ neurophysiologist  Nobel Prize in 1904  studied digestive secretions classical conditioning **discovered the process of classical conditioning by accident while conducting research on digestion.

15. The core of classical conditioning stems from reflex responses. A REFLEX is an unlearned response that is naturally elicited by specific stimuli that are biologically relevant for the organism.

16. A stimulus that elicits a reflexive behavior is called an UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (UCS). The behavior elicited by the unconditioned stimulus is called the UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UCR).

17. The neutral stimulus paired with the unconditioned stimulus is called the CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS). After several trials, the CS will produce a response called the CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR).

18. NOTE: Prior to the experiment the “tone” used had no prior meaning for the dogs. This was a NEUTRAL STIMULUS and elicits no effect. * The UCS naturally elicits the UCR. Dogs were placed in a restraining harness. At regular intervals, a tone (NS) sounded and the dogs were given food (UCS). With repeated pairings of the NS and UCS, the neutral stimulus becomes the CS and dogs began salivating (CR).

19. The CS (tone) can now be sounded and elicit the CR (salivation) without food being present.

20. Pavlov’s Experiments

21. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning zPavlov’s device for recording salivation

22. Classical Conditioning

23. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

24. Classical Conditioning

25. Conditioning Acquisition ythe initial stage of learning, during which a response is established and gradually strengthened yin classical conditioning, the phase in which a stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response yin operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

26. Pavlov’s Experiments Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction ydiminishing of a CR yin classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS yin operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced

27. Pavlov’s Experiments Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous Recovery yreappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR Strength of CR Pause Acquisition (CS+UCS) Extinction (CS alone) Extinction (CS alone) Spontaneous recovery of CR

28. Higher-order Conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

29. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

30. Pavlov’s Experiments Generalization Generalization ytendency for a stimuli similar to CS to evoke similar responses

31. Pavlov’s Experiments Discrimination Discrimination yin classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal an UCS yin operant conditioning, responding differently to stimuli that signal a behavior will be reinforced or will not be reinforced

32. Classical Conditioning

33. Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients UCS (drug) UCR (nausea) CS (waiting room) CS (waiting room) CR (nausea) UCS (drug) UCR (nausea)

34. Extending Pavlov’s Understanding zCognitive Processes yLearned helplessness : the helplessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. zBiological Predispositions yConditioned taste aversion

35. Biopsychosocial Influences on Learning

36. Behaviorism (applying classical conditioning) the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

37. Behaviorism zJohn B. Watson viewed psychology as objective science xgenerally agreed-upon consensus today recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by all schools of thought today

38. John B. Watson in his experiment with Little Albert, an 11 month old baby, studied how emotions are learned. He presented (A) a white rat (CS) and (B) a loud noise (US) to Little Albert. After several pairings, Albert showed fear (CR) of the white rat. Later, Albert generalized the fear to stimuli that were simular to CS, such as (C) a beard. It is widely known that human beings are born with only two natural fears. One is the fear of falling and the second is the fear of loud noises. Where, then, do all of our other fears come from? Overgeneralization

40. Operant Conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

41. Operant Conditioning

42. Skinner’s Experiments zB.F. Skinner yBehavioral technology yBehavior control

43. Operant Conditioning ytype of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment Law of Effect yEdward Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

44. Thorndike's Puzzle Box, used a cat solving the puzzle of how to escape from the box. However, unlike Skinner's experiment with rats, the cat did not show any systematic strategies in learning. He simply scrambled around in the box until he stepped on the lever. From this, Thorndike proposed the Law of Effect which says that an animals learned response that results in rewarding consequences are strengthened, and the responses with punishing consequences are weakened.

45. Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Harvard University yelaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect ydeveloped behavioral technology

46. Operant Chamber Skinner Box ysoundproof chamber with a bar or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a food or water reward ycontains a device to record responses

47. Skinner’s Experiments zOperant Chamber (Skinner Box)

48. Operant Conditioning Operant Behavior ycomplex or voluntary behaviors xpush button, perform complex task yoperates (acts) on environment yproduces consequences Respondent Behavior: =>behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. =>behavior learned through classical conditioning

49. B.F. Skinner was a prolific researcher whose work was central to modern behaviorism. He was especially successful in his studies dealing with operant conditioning, which is how we learn to make a response because it leads to a reinforcing effect, or how not to make a response because of the punishing effect.

50. In one experiment, Skinner placed a rat inside a box with two levers, one that issued a reward when pulled and the other that issued a punishment. Over time, the rat began to stop pulling the lever that shocked him and just focused on the lever that gave him food. As a result, Skinner was able to show the effects of reinforcement and punishment in operant conditioning.

51. Skinner’s Experiments Shaping Behavior zShaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. ySuccessive approximations yDiscriminative stimulus

52. Skinner’s Experiments Shaping Behavior zShaping:  Successive approximations: reward behaviors that increasingly resemble desired behavior yDiscriminative stimulus

53. Skinner’s Experiments Shaping Behavior zShaping: ySuccessive approximations yDiscriminative stimulus: in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

54. SHOW: Psych in Life, ver 2, #8, Meet the Parents

55. Principles of Reinforcement Primary Reinforcer yinnately reinforcing stimulus ysatisfies a biological need Secondary Reinforcer yconditioned reinforcer ylearned through association with primary reinforcer

56. Operant Conditioning

57. Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement yreinforcing the desired response each time it occurs ylearning occurs rapidly yextinction occurs rapidly Partial Reinforcement yreinforcing a response only part of the time yresults in slower acquisition ygreater resistance to extinction

58. Schedules of Reinforcement 1) Fixed Ratio (FR) yreinforces a response only after a specified number of responses yfaster you respond the more rewards you get ydifferent ratios yvery high rate of responding ylike piecework pay 2) Variable Ratio (VR) yreinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses yaverage ratios ylike gambling, fishing yvery hard to extinguish because of unpredictability

59. Schedules of Reinforcement 3) Fixed Interval (FI) yreinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed yresponse occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near 4) Variable Interval (VI) yreinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals yproduces slow steady responding ylike pop quiz

60. In essence, if one's actions make the thing happen it is a ratio; if time must pass then it is an interval.

61. Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Interval Number of responses 1000 750 500 250 0 10203040506070 Time (minutes) Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed Interval Steady responding Rapid responding near time for reinforcement 80

62. Operant vs Classical Conditioning ExtinctionCR decreases when CS isResponding decreases when repeatedly presented alone.reinforcement stops. Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning The ResponseInvoluntary, automatic“Voluntary,” operates on environment AcquisitionAssociating events;Associating response with a CS announces UCS.Consequence (reinforcer or punisher). CognitiveSubjects develop expectation Subjects develop expectation that processesthat CS signals the arrival ofa response will be reinforced or UCS.Punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement BiologicalNatural predispositions Organisms best learn behaviors predispositionscontain what stimuli andsimilar to their natural behaviors; responses can easily beunnatural behaviors instinctively associated.drift back toward natural ones.

63. Punishment zPunishment yaversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows ypowerful controller of unwanted behavior

64. Problems with Punishment Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed- behavior returns when punishment is no longer eminent Causes increased aggression- shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems- Explains why aggressive delinquents and abusive parents come from abusive homes

65. Punishment

66. Problems with Punishment Creates fear that can generalize to desirable behaviors, e.g. fear of school, learned helplessness, depression Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior- reinforcement tells you what to do-- punishment tells you what not to do- Combination of punishment and reward can be more effective than punishment alone Punishment teaches how to avoid it

67. SHOW: Psych in Life, ver 2, #1, The War. Show Dr. Phil: Focus on Family

68. Cognition and Operant Conditioning Latent Learning ylearning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

69. Latent Learning

70. 12345678910111213141516171819202122 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 Average errors Days

71. Cognition and Operant Conditioning Overjustification Effect ythe effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do ythe person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task

72. Martin Seligman’s LEARNED HELPLESSNESS Taught dogs that they were helpless to escape from an electric shock by placing a barrier in the cage to prevent dogs from escaping when they were shocked. Removed the barrier but the dogs made no effort to escape. This “learned helplessness” has been compared to people who are depressed. They feel past/future events are out of their control and they are helpless = depression. Father of Positive Psychology Univ. Pennsylvania

73. Cognition and Operant Conditioning  Intrinsic Motivation  Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective  Extrinsic Motivation  Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments

74. Observational Learning ylearning by observing and imitating others Modeling yprocess of observing and imitating behavior Prosocial Behavior ypositive, constructive, helpful behavior yopposite of antisocial behavior

75. Observational Learning Mirror Neurons  frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so  may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

76. Albert Bandura (1925- ) University of British Columbia in 1949. University of Iowa, Ph.D. in 1952 1953, teaching at Stanford University reciprocal determinism Bandura wanted to study aggression in adolescents. He suggested that environment causes behavior, true; but behavior causes environment as well. He labeled this concept reciprocal determinism: The world and a person’s behavior cause each other.

77. The bobo doll studies: * made of film of one of his students, a young woman, essentially beating up a bobo doll. *showed his film to groups of kindergartners who, as you might predict, liked it a lot. *when they were let out to play, the little kids started beating the daylights out of the bobo doll. observational learning modelingsocial learning theory. He called the phenomenon observational learning or modeling, and his theory is usually called social learning theory.

78. SHOW: Psych in Life, ver 2, #19, Dazed and Confused.

79. Lev S. Vygotsky (1896-1934) *humans use various symbols and items that help us to develop cultures *we change, interact and go through development within our cultures *higher ﾊ thinking skills depend on the internalization of the items we used to develop within our culture and communicate. *used blocks to distinguish children's mastery of the concept from simple memorization **His work was suppressed by Marxist Russian authorities for over 20 years after his death. Born in Russia (Jewish) Law degree Unive of Moscow PhD Literature & Linguistics

80. Lev S. Vygotsky (cont) Several theories regarding learning and development. 1)Theory of Value: what knowledge and skills are worth learning? (varies--past experiences and prior knowledge important to create new ideas--language, culture and social interactions important) 2)Theory of Knowledge: how is knowledge different from belief? (intellectual abilities are specific to the culture in which the child was reared) 1)Incoherent coherence: making mistakes is crucial to child development.

81. Lev S. Vygotsky (cont) 3) Theory of Human Nature: how do humans differ from other species? (we develop as humans through the ways we interact with those around us--ability to develop psychological tools that are "used to gain mastery over one's own behavior and cognition") 4) Theory of Learning: how are knowledge and skills acquired? (through social interaction and language-- learning is what leads to the development of higher order thinking) (IMPORTANT CONCEPTS: Zone of Proximal Development (ch 4), Scaffolding (ch 4, ))

82. Lev S. Vygotsky (cont) 5) Theory of Transmission: who is to teach? methods? curriculum? (defined those who are to teach as the "More Knowledgeable Other." (MKO) includes parents, teachers, peers, siblings et.al.--jigsaw method, teacher as collaborator) 6) Theory of Society: what institutions are involved? (allows the learner to develop cognitively through social interactions--language and environment important---learning takes place in ANY environment)

83. Lev S. Vygotsky (cont) 7) Theory of Opportunity: who is to be educated? (socialization is the process of cultural transmission, both unintentional and deliberate-- children w/ disabilities should not be separated) 8) Theory of Consensus: why do people disagree? (because they are engaged in class struggle for dominance among competing social groups--the most powerful members of dominant groups create the rules for success and opportunity in society, often denying subordinate groups such success and opportunities)

84. MODERN THEORIES The Gregorc Mind Styles Take test

85. perception ordering abstractness concreteness. sequentially randomly concrete/sequential (CS), abstract/sequential (AS), abstract/random (AR), and concrete/random (CR). "The Gregorc model is a cognitive model designed to reveal two types of abilities: perception and ordering. Perceptual abilities, the means through which information is grasped, translate into two qualities: abstractness and concreteness. Ordering abilities are the ways the learner organizes information, either sequentially (linearly) or randomly (non-linearly). Gregorc couples these qualities to form four learning categories: concrete/sequential (CS), abstract/sequential (AS), abstract/random (AR), and concrete/random (CR).

86. Concrete/SequentialConcrete/Random Abstract/Sequential Abstract/Random Sequential Random Concrete Abstract By combining the two ides, Gregorc builds the following four quadrants:

87. Concrete-Sequential: Practical and well organized. They like to plan their work and work their plan Thinking processes are logical, instinctive and deliberate. Strive for perfection and have an eye for detail. Focus on material reality and physical objects. Creativity lies not with originality but with making it more effective than the original. Prefer an environment that is ordered, practical, quiet, and stable.

88. Concrete-Random: Practical and live in the physical world, but they like to learn by trial and error. Rather than a plan, they want options. Thinking processes are instinctive, intuitive, and impulsive. Events affected by outside variables. Focus on practical applications, methods, and processes. Creativity is original, inventive, and unique. Prefer an environment that is stimulus rich and competitive.

89. Abstract-Sequential: Like to develop ideas in a logical way. How someone feels about something does not change reality. Thinking processes are intellectual, analytical, correlative, fluid, and quick. Loves books. Focus attention on knowledge, concepts, and ideas. Creativity lies within models, theories, and synthesizing. Prefer an environment that is ordered, quiet, independent, and mentally stimulating.

90. Abstract-Random: Work from the heart, not the head. How someone feels about it makes a great deal of difference. Thinking processes are based in feelings, which makes this type of person good at establishing a rapport with people Make sense of the world using feelings and emotions. Focus on emotional attachments, relationships, and memories. Creativity is imaginative and often expressed through music and art. Prefer an environment of emotional experiences, active and colorful, and physical freedom.

91. Concrete/Sequential Likes: - Order, predictability - Logical sequence - Following directions Learns best with: - Structured environment Dislikes: - Incomplete or unorganized - Questions without right/wrong Makes sense - Step-by-step - A schedule to follow Concrete/Random Likes: - Experimenting - Take risks - Independent problem solving Learns best with: - Trial-and-error approaches Dislikes: - Restrictions and limitations - No options Makes sense: - Try it - Concrete examples Abstract/Sequential Likes: - Their points to be heard - Analyzing before deciding - Applying logic Learns best with: - Able to work alone Dislikes: - Expressing their emotions - Too little time to be thorough Makes sense: - Well researched information - Work through ideas thoroughly Abstract/Random Likes: - Listen to others - Group harmony - Healthy relationships with others Learns best with: - Group activities Dislikes: - Criticism - Focusing on one thing at a time Makes sense: - From the heart not the head - Personal examples

92. Components of Thought

93. CONCEPTS: Mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experience. *building blocks of thinking *allow organization in systematic ways

94. CONCEPTS: Might be *classes of objects (chairs, birds, birthday parties) *properties (red, large) *abstractions (truth, love) *relations (smarter than….) *procedures (how to tie your shoes) *intentions (intention to break into a conversation)

95. CONCEPTS: TWO KINDS Natural concepts Natural concepts: mental classifications that develop out of everyday experiences in the world. (birds, mother’s face, artichokes, Statue of Liberty) Artificial concepts Artificial concepts: defined by a set of rules or characteristics (dictionary definitions, mathematical formulas) NOTE: Cognitive psychology is an artificial concept; so is the concept of a “concept”.

96. We organize much of our memory into CONCEPT HIERARCHIES. Animal BirdFish CanaryOstrich SharkSalmon Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

97. SCHEMA: like a file folder that contains all I know about something. …….also includes mental images and propositions….. (ex: BIRDS) CONCEPT: collection of objects that are part of the schema. (ex: ROBINS, BLUE JAYS, PELICANS et.al.) PROTOTYPE: one of the members of the concept the most typical member. (ex: ROBIN) IMAGES: mental images of members of the concept. PROPOSITIONS: statements I can make about the subject of the schema. (ex: Cardinals are red. An eagle is the symbol of the US. Mom has a parakeet. Birds fly. Birds have feathers.)

98. CULTURE, CONCEPTS AND THOUGHT Most research done on concept formation is done with cultural specificity. For example, not all words mean the same thing in all parts of the globe. One big cultural difference is the use of logic. Some groups do not value the use of logical reasoning the same as Europeans or North Americans. A greater emphasis is placed on “common sense” or “intuition.”

99. ……and in Asian cultures, more emphasis is placed on the relationship between the concepts, not on the precise definitions of the concepts.

100. Imagery Question: What are the shape of a German Shepard’s ears? visual image You probably consulted a visual image of a German Shepard stored in your memory. You have not intentionally learned the shape--it is latent learning.

101. Cognitive Maps yMental, visual representation of the layout of one’s environment yexample- after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it Cognitive maps help you get to psychology class or drive your mom to the theatre or help you walk around your house.

102. Take a look at this cognitive map of how we get up in the morning.

103. Cognitive maps also reflect our impressions of physical reality. The maps we have in our mind regarding the world are reflected in our cultural upbringing. STUDY: 4000 students in 71 cities in 49 countries were asked to draw a map of the world. Most maps were Eurocentric, but many placed their own country in center with others surrounding it. The most accurate maps came from students in former Soviet Union and Hungary. The most inaccurate came from American students.

104. SCHEMAS

105. Schema: Cluster of related concepts that provides a general conceptual framework for thinking about a topic, an event, an object, people or a situation in one’s life. (Zimbardo) *provide contexts *provide expectations *provide features likely to be found when encountering familiar people or situations.

106. For example, take the word, TERMINAL. Are you in: *an airport? *a hospital? *an auto shop? How does the meaning change?

107. SCRIPT We also have SCHEMAS about persons, roles, and ourselves. An event schema is called a SCRIPT. We have scripts for going to restaurant, going to church, going to the library, or making love. Culture influences our scripts. U.S. servicewomen in the middle east had to change many behaviors taken for granted at home, such as walking unescorted in public or driving a car or wearing clothing that showed their faces and legs, when they went into Arab countries.

108. Conflicting scripts can make people awkward and difficult to understand. Sometimes it can be so uncomfortable, they don’t want to play the scene again.

109. Read the following passage carefully: Chief Resident Jones adjusted his face mask while anxiously surveying a pale figure secured to the long gleaming table before him. One swift stroke of his small, sharp instrument and a thin red line appeared. Then the eager young assistant carefully extended the opening as another aide pushed aside glistening surface fat so that the vital parts were laid bare. Everyone started in horror at the ugly growth too large for removal. He now knew it was pointless to continue.

110. Now write down which of the following words appeared in the passage: PatientScalpelBloodTumor CancerNurseDiseaseSurgery In the original study, most of the subjects circled the words patient, scalpel, and tumor, however, none of the words were there.

111. PROBLEM- SOLVING

112. INDUCTIVE REASONING INDUCTIVE REASONING: form of thinking using individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion. The ice is cold = all ice is cold DEDUCTIVE REASONING DEDUCTIVE REASONING: form of thinking in which conclusions are inferred from premises, the conclusions are true if the premises are true (if this, then that) All men are mortal & Socrates is a man = Socrates is mortal

113. What abilities do good thinkers possess? a)Identify the problem b)Select a strategy IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM: Good problem solvers considers ALL the possibilities. If your car sputters out on the road, your action may include getting to the gas station to get gas. However, you may have failed to notice the loose battery cable that interupts the electricity and causes the gas gauge to read “empty.”

114. A mnemonic used to problem solve is IDEAL. I = identify D = define E = explore A = act on best strategy L = look back and revise

115. SELECT A STRATEGY: a)Trial and error (for simple problems) b)Algorithms c)Heuristics ALGORITHMS: formulas or procedures. If applied correctly, algorithms will always work. *balance checkbook, figure gas mileage, calculate gradepoint average.

116. HEURISTICS: simple, basic rules or “rule of thumb”. (i.e.) “feed a cold, starve a fever” Heuristics do not guarantee a solution, but they give us a good start. Useful heuristics include: a)Working backward b)Searching for analogies. (if the new problem is similar to the one you’ve faced previously) c)Breaking a big problem into smaller pieces

117. SHOW: Psych in Film, ver 2, #5, Apollo 13 #6, Apollo 13 #7, Apollo 13

118. OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM-SOLVING

119. Obstacles to problem-solving include: a)Mental set b)Functional fixedness c)Self-imposed limitations d)others

120. Say this word 3 times. SILK What do cows drink? Did you say milk? They actually drink water.... But this is an example of mental set.

121. Obstacles to problem-solving: Mental set The tendency to approach a new problem in the same way you approached a similar problem previously. See if you can unscramble the following words: nelinfrscaraspetnsai enscepesheklstaepslo sdlennitranolemnaoce lecammacredlscotesle slfal elwhahsflemaste

122. Most people, whether they realize it or not, eventually solve the scrambled word problem with an algorithm by rearranging the order of the letters in all the words in the same say using the formula 3-4-5-2-1. Nelin becomeslinen 1234534521 However, if you use the algorithm, your answers for the last 2 columns won’t agree with the “correct” ones.

123. Correct answers: Linenscarfpearsstain scenesheeptalkspoles lendstrainmeloncanoe camelcreamcoldssteel fallswhaleshelfmeats

124. Obstacles to problem-solving: functional fixedness The function of a familiar object becomes so set, or fixed, in you mind that you cannot see a new function for it. Ex: Your psych prof has offered you $5 if you can tie together two strings dangling from the ceiling without pulling them down. But when you grab the end of one string and pull it toward the other one, you find that you cannot quite reach the other string. The only objects available to you in the room are on the floor: a ping-pong ball, five screws, a screwdriver, a glass of water, and a paper bag. How can you reach both strings and tie them together?

125. Did you realize that you could use the screwdriver as a pendulum weight to swing one of the strings toward you?

126. Obstacles to problem-solving: Self-imposed limitations The idea that we impose unnecessary limitations to ourselves. Can you connect all the dots with four connecting lines without lifting your pencil from the paper?

127. Two Solutions

128. Obstacles to problem-solving: Other obstacles a)Lack of specific knowledge b)Lack of interest c)Low self-esteem d)Fatigue e)Drugs (even legal drugs) f)Stress g)Bias

129. BIAS a)Confirmation bias: finding fault with information that doesn’t confirm your belief. b)Hindsight bias: people overestimate their ability to have predicted an event c)Anchoring bias: faulty heuristic caused by basing an estimate on a completely unrelated quantity. 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x 8 = ? 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = ? When these equations are given to 2 separate groups of people to ESTIMATE, the average answer for #1 was 512, and #2 was 2250.

130. d) Representativeness bias: faulty heuristic strategy based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category. e) Availability bias: faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on information that can be recalled from personal experience.

131. Effects of Multitasking http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/digitalnation/view/

132. MARZANO’S STRATEGIES

133. Robert J. Marzano is cofounder and CEO of Marzano Research Laboratory in Englewood, Colorado. speaker, trainer, and author dealing with instruction, assessment, writing and implementing standards, cognition, effective leadership, and school intervention. BA, Iona College (New York) MA, Seattle University PhD, University of Washington.

134. Marzano outlined 9 strategies most likely to improve student achievement: 1. Identifying similarities and differences 2. Summarizing and note taking 3. Reinforcing effort and providing recognition 4. Homework and practice 5. Nonlinguistic representations 6. Cooperative learning 7. Setting objectives and providing feedback 8. Generating and testing hypotheses 9. Cues, questions, and advance organizers

135. 1.Identifying similarities and differences a.Venn diagrams b.Charts used to compare and classify terms 2. Summarizing and note taking a. double or triple column notes b. clarify questions and predict what will happen next 3. Reinforcing effort and providing recognition a. share stories about people b. keep a log of weekly efforts and successes

136. 4. Homework and practice a. homework policy b. feedback c. timed quizes 5. Nonlinguistic representations a. words and images to represent relationships b. physical models c. physical movement

137. 6. Cooperative learning a. group by common experience/interests b. vary sizes and objectives c. base activities on 1. social skills 2. face to face interaction 3. group processing 4. positive interdependence 5. individual accountabiliey 6. group accountability

138. 7. Setting objectives and providing feedback a. set core goal (essential question) b. encourage students to personalize the goal c. how will student meet the goal? 8. Generating and testing hypotheses a. ask about how things could change if…. b. ask student to build something 9. Cues, questions, and advance organizers a. pause after asking a question b. vary style of advanced organizer 1. tell a story, graphic image, skim text

139. Benjamin Bloom created a taxonomy to categorize the level of abstraction of questions that commonly occur in educational settings. The taxonomy provides a useful structure in which to categorize test questions. easy to comprehend but difficult to apply focus was on mastery BA, MA Penn State Univ PhD, Univ of Chicago

140. Following the 1948 Convention of the American Psychological Association, B S Bloom took a lead in formulating a classification of "the goals of the educational process". Three "domains" of educational activities were identified. Cognitive Domain Affective Domain Psychomotor Domain Bloom and his co-workers established a hierarchy of educational objectives, (Bloom's Taxonomy), which divide cognitive objectives into subdivisions ranging from the simplest behaviour to the most complex.

141. BLOOM’s TAXONOMY High school students are rarely asked higher level questions: Level 1:Knowledge Level 2:Comprehension Level 3: Application Level 4: Analysis Level 5:Synthesis Level 6: Evaluation

142. BLOOM’s TAXONOMY Level 1:Knowledge observation and recall of information knowledge of dates, events, places knowledge of major ideas mastery of subject matter Question Cues: list, define, tell, describe, identify, show, label, collect, examine, tabulate, quote, name, who, when, where, etc.

143. BLOOM’s TAXONOMY Level 2:Comprehension understanding information grasp meaning translate knowledge into new context interpret facts, compare, contrast order, group, infer causes predict consequences Question Cues: summarize, describe, interpret, contrast, predict, associate, distinguish, estimate, differentiate, discuss, extend

144. BLOOM’s TAXONOMY Level 3: Application use information use methods, concepts, theories in new situations solve problems using required skills or knowledge Questions Cues: apply, demonstrate, calculate, complete, illustrate, show, solve, examine, modify, relate, change, classify, experiment, discover

145. BLOOM’s TAXONOMY Level 4: Analysis seeing patterns organization of parts recognition of hidden meanings identification of components Question Cues: analyze, separate, order, explain, connect, classify, arrange, divide, compare, select, explain, infer

146. BLOOM’s TAXONOMY Level 5:Synthesis use old ideas to create new ones generalize from given facts relate knowledge from several areas predict, draw conclusions Question Cues: combine, integrate, modify, rearrange, substitute, plan, create, design, invent, what it?, compose, formulate, prepare, generalize, rewrite

147. BLOOM’s TAXONOMY Level 6: Evaluation compare and discriminate between ideas assess value of theories, presentations make choices based on reasoned argument verify value of evidence recognize subjectivity Question Cues: assess, decide, rank, grade, test, measure, recommend, convince, select, judge, explain, discriminate, support, conclude, compare, summarize

148. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

149. RECALL 1) Classical conditioning is especially useful for understanding which one of the following examples of learning? a)A child who, after a painful dental visit, has learned to fear the dentist b)A dog that has learned to “sit up” for a food reward c)An executive who is afraid that she will lose her job d)A rat that has learned to run a maze e)A psychology student who is learning how memory works

150. RECALL 2)The responses in classical conditioning were originally a)New behaviors b)Premeditated behaviors c)Random acts d)Trained reflexes e)Innate reflexes

151. APPLICATION 3) If you learned to fear electrical outlets after getting a painful shock from plugging in a light, what would be the CS? a)The time period between seeing the outlet and getting the shock b)The prong on the light cord c)The electrical outlet d)The painful shock e)The fear

152. UNDERSTANDING THE CORE CONCEPT 4) Which of the following would be most likely to be an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) involved in classical conditioning? a)praise b)money c)music d)a flashing light e)food

153. RECALL 5) Thorndike’s law of effect said that an organism will learn to perform responses that are a)Preceded by a conditioned stimulus b)reflective c)prompted d)Preceded by a neutral stimulus e)rewarded

154. APPLICATION 6) Which one of the following is an example of negative reinforcement? a)Taking away a child’s favorite toy when the child misbehaves b)Making a child watch while another child is punished c)Giving a child a toy for misbehaving d)Going to the dentist and having a toothache relieved e)Spanking a child for swearing

155. APPLICATION 7) Suppose that you have taught your dog to roll over for a reward of a dog biscuit. Then one day you run out of dog biscuits. Which schedule of reinforcement would keep your dog responding longer without a biscuit? a)Noncontingent reinforcement b)Positive reinforcement c)Negative reinforcement d)Intermittent reinforcement e)Continuous reinforcement

156. RECALL 8) Which one of the following is a conditioned reinforcer for most people? a)A sharp pain in the back b)water c)money d)sex e)food

157. UNDERSTANDING THE CORE CONCEPT 9) Operant conditioning in contrast with classical conditioning emphasizes events (such as rewards and punishments) that occur a)After the behavior b)Concurrently with another response c)At the same time as another stimulus d)During the behavior e)Before the behavior

158. RECALL 10) When their goal path was blocked, Tolman’s rats would take the shortest detour around the barrier. This, said Tolman, showed that they had developed a)Observational learning b)Operant behavior c)Trial-and-error learning d)Classical responses e)Cognitive maps

159. RECALL 11) Cognitive psychologist Robert Rescorla has reinterpreted the process of classical conditioning in his view, the conditioned stimulus (CS) serves as a)Stimulus that follows the UCS b)punisher c)Cue that signals the onset of the UCS d)Negative reinforcement e)Cognitive map

160. APPLICATION 12) If you were going to use Bandura’s findings in developing a program to prevent violence among middle school children, you might a)Have children role-play nonagressive solutions to interpersonal problems b)Have children watch videos of aggressive children who are not being reinforced for their aggressive behavior c)Reward children for nonviolent acts. d)Punish children for aggressive acts performed at school e)Have children punch a BoBo doll to “get the aggression out of their system.”

161. UNDERSTANDING THE CORE CONCEPT 13) Which of the following proved to be difficult to explain in purely behavioral terms? a)A child learning to read b)A pigeon learning to press a lever in a Skinner box for a food reward c)A chimpanzee using a pile of boxes and a stick to obtain food hung high in its cage. d)A dog salivating at the sound of a bell e)A trained seal doing a trick for a fish

162. APPLICATION 14) A dictionary definition would be an example of a)An artificial concept b)A natural concept c)A core concept d)An abstract concept e)A concrete concept

163. APPLICATION 15) Which one of the following list represents a concept hierarchy? a)Cat, dog, giraffe, elephant b)Animal, mammal, dog, cocker spaniel c)Woman, girl, man, boy d)Lemur, monkey, chimpanzee, human e)Beaver, fox, cat, cougar

164. APPLICATION 16) Knowing how to check out a book at the library is an example of a)A natural concept b)An event-related potential c)A cognitive map d)A script e)A core concept

165. UNDERSTANDING THE CORE CONCEPT 17) All of the following are components of thought, except a)concepts b)images c)schemas d)stimuli e)scripts

166. RECALL 18) What is the first step in problem solving? a)Selecting a strategy b)Avoiding pitfalls c)Searching for analogies d)Identifying the problem e)Developing algorithms

167. APPLICATION 19) A math problem calls for finding the area of a triangle. You know the formula, so you multiply 1/2 the base times the height. You have used a)An algorithm b)A heuristic c)Functional fixedness d)intuition e)An analogy

168. RECALL 20) Good problem solvers often use “tricks of the trade” or “rules of thumb” known as a)algorithms b)heuristics c)Trial and error d)Deductive reasoning e)scripts

169. APPLICATION 21) Which one of the following would be an example of confirmation bias at work? a)Mary ignores negative information about her favorite political candidate b)Aaron agrees with Joel’s taste in music c)Natasha refuses to eat a food she dislikes d)Bill buys a new RV, even though his wife was opposed to the purchase e)Frank buys a lottery ticket because he read about a lotto winner.

170. RECALL 22) Which of the following is NOT a characteristic that is consistently found among highly creative people? a)independence b)A high level of motivation c)Willingness to restructure the problem d)Extremely high intelligence e)Open-mindedness

171. UNDERSTANDING THE CORE CONCEPT 23) Heuristic strategies show that our thinking is often biased on a)Logic rather than emotion b)Experience rather than logic c)Trial and error rather than algorithms d)Common sense rather than learning e)Logic rather than creativity.

172. Show DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY #8 Learning