1. Chapter 17 Late Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development
Development Across the Lifespan

2. Physical Development in Late Adulthood
There are more than 60, 000 people in the United States who are 100 or more years of age!
By the year 2020, there will be over 200,000
The mean life expectancy of people in Western countries continues to rise
Old age used to be equated with loss: loss of brain cells, loss of intellectual capabilities, loss of energy, loss of sex drive.
This view is changing!

3. GERONTOLOGISTS, specialists who study aging, now see late adulthood as a period of considerable diversity in which people change--growth in some areas, decline in others.
Even the definition of “old” age is changing:
Functional ages are often considered in addition to chronological ages…

4. Functional Age Categories
Young old
Healthy & active
Old old
Some health problems & difficulties with daily activities
Oldest old
Frail & in need of care
~ Chronological age can sometimes predict which group a person is likely to fall into, but it is not a sure thing!

5. Aging: Myth & Reality
Because people are living longer, late adulthood is increasing in length.
Late adulthood is considered to begin at about 60, and ends at death.
-- In 1900, only 6 % of the population was age 60 or older.
-- By 1990, more than 17 % are 60 or older.
-- The number of people over age 85 is projected to increase from 4 to 18 million by 2050! (see next slide)

6. The Flourishing Elderly
Think about what factors are contributing to the rise in the population of those over 65.

7. The Demographics of Late Adulthood
Projections into the year 2050 estimate that almost 25 % of the population will be over 65.
The fastest growing segment of the population is what is termed the oldest old, people who are 85 or older. This group's size has nearly doubled in the last 20 years.
This trend is occurring in every developed country in the world.

8. The Elderly Population Worldwide

9. Ageism: Confronting the Stereotypes of Late Adulthood
AGEISM, prejudice and discrimination directed at older people, is manifested in several ways.
Negative attitudes about older people, especially about competence and attractiveness.
Job discrimination
Identical behavior by an older person and a younger person is interpreted differently.

10. People talk baby talk to persons in nursing homes.
Most negative views are based on misinformation about older people (take the myths of aging quiz in your text)
 Important to remember that the outcomes of aging vary widely from one person to the next! The autumn & winter of life can bring as much positive change & growth as in earlier life periods.

11. Physical Transitions in Older People: Outward Signs of Aging
Although the physical capabilities of elderly people are not the same as they were in earlier stages of life, many older people remain remarkably agile and physically fit in later life.
One of the most obvious outward signs of aging is the hair.
gray or white
thinner
The face and other parts of the body become wrinkled as the skin loses elasticity and collagen, the protein that forms the basic fibers of body tissue

12. ~ People may shrink as much as 4 inches.
cartilage in backbone becomes thinner
women are most susceptible if they have OSTEOPOROSIS, a condition in which the bones become brittle, fragile, and thin, often brought about by a lack of calcium in the diet.
25 % of women over 60 have osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis is the primary cause of broken bones.
Osteoporosis is largely preventable with sufficient calcium and exercise.

13. Negative stereotypes against appearing old exist for both men and women
Women, especially in Western cultures, suffer from the double standard for appearance, where women who show signs of aging are judged more harshly than are men.
Women are more likely to dye their hair.
Women are more likely to have plastic surgery.

14. Internal Aging
Significant changes also occur in the internal functioning of the organ systems.
The brain becomes smaller and lighter with age.
There is a reduction of blood flow to the brain.
The space between the skull and the brain doubles from age 20 to 70.
The number of neurons, or brain cells, declines in some parts of the brain, though not as much as was once thought.

15. Because of hardening of the arteries and shrinking of blood vessels, a 75-year-old's heart pumps less than three-quarters of the blood it pumped during early adulthood.
The efficiency of the respiratory system declines with age.
The digestive system produces less digestive juice and is less efficient in pushing food through the system (result = more constipation).

16. Changing
Physical
Capacities

17. Slowing Reaction Time
~ Older adult's reaction time slows significantly.
The PERIPHERAL SLOWING HYPOTHESIS suggests that overall processing speed declines in the peripheral nervous system (spinal cord and brain).
The GENERALIZED SLOWING HYPOTHESIS is the theory that processing in all parts of the nervous system, including the brain, is less efficient.

18. It takes older individuals longer to respond
Decision processes are slowed down
Older people have more accidents (next slide)
~~Although it takes individuals longer to respond, the perception of time increases with age!
Time generally seems to rush by faster for older adults than younger ones
The reason may be changes in the way the brain coordinates it internal time clock (Mangan, 97)

19. Vehicle Fatalities Across the Life Span
Drivers over age 70 have a fatal accident record comparable to teens. Why?

20. The Senses: Sight, Sound, Taste & Smell
 Old age brings a distinct declining in the sense organs of the body.
Vision
Lens becomes less transparent and the pupils shrink.
The optic nerve becomes less efficient.
Distant objects become less acute.
More light is needed to see and it takes longer to adjust to a change from light to darkness and vice versa.

21. Driving at night becomes difficult.
Reading becomes more of a strain and eye strain occurs more easily.
Cataracts, cloudy or opaque areas of the lens of the eye that interfere with passing light, frequently develop.
Cataracts can be surgically removed.
Intraocular lens implants can replace old lens

22. Glaucoma occurs when pressure in the fluid of the eye increases, either because the fluid cannot drain properly or because too much fluid is produced.
Glaucoma can be corrected with drugs or surgery.
It must be detected early enough.
The most common cause of blindness in people over the age of 60 is age-related macular degeneration (AMD) which affects the macula, a yellowish area of the eye located near the retina at which visual perception is most acute.

23. ( Sight, Sound, Taste & Smell in Late Adulthood, continued)
Hearing
30 % of adults between 65 and 74 have some hearing loss.
50 % of adults between over 75 have hearing loss.
High frequencies are the hardest to hear.

24. Hearing aids would be helpful 75 percent of the time but only 20 percent of people wear them.
They are imperfect and amplify all sounds so it is difficult to discern conversations.
There is a stigma attached to wearing a hearing aid.
Because they cannot hear, some people withdraw from society because they feel left out and lonely.

25. ( Sight, Sound, Taste & Smell in Late Adulthood, continued)
Taste and smell
Both senses become less discriminating in old age.
Due to decline in taste buds on tongue.
Olfactory bulbs in the brain shrink and reduce the ability to smell.
People eat less and get poor nutrition.
Older people may oversalt their food and develop hypertension, or high blood pressure

26. Health and Wellness in Late Adulthood
Contrary to popular opinion, most elderly people are in relatively good health for most of old age: ¾ of people 65 and older rate their health as good, very good, or excellent.
Most older people have at least one chronic, long-term condition.

27. Common Physical Disorders
in Late Adulthood…
Arthritis, an inflammation of one or more joints, is common, striking around half of older people.
Approximately one-third of older people have hypertension, or high blood pressure.
The leading causes (three-fourths of all deaths) of death in elderly people are: heart disease, cancer, and stroke

28. Psychological & Mental Disorders
15 to 25 % of those over age 65 show some symptoms of psychological malady.
Depression is one of the more common problems for this age group
Characterized by intense sadness, pessimism, and hopelessness.
May be a result of cumulative losses in life.
Declining health may contribute.
Some psychological problems such as anxiety may be caused by inappropriate drug doses

29. The most common mental disorder of old people is DEMENTIA, a broad category covering several diseases, each of which includes serious memory loss accompanied by declines in other mental functioning.
Signs are declining memory, lessened intellectual abilities, and impaired judgment.
Less than 2 % of people between the ages of 60 and 65 have it; percentages double every 5 years after 65.
1/3 of those over 85 suffer from some sort of dementia

30. The most common form of dementia is ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE, which is a progressive brain disorder that produces loss of memory and confusion.
Alzheimer's kills 100,000 people a year.
If current trends continue, by the year 2040, almost 7 million Americans over 85 will be victims.

31. The symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease appear gradually.
Unusual forgetfulness.
Trouble recalling particular words during conversation.
First recent memory goes, then older memories.
Eventually, total confusion, inability to speak intelligibly or to recognize family and friends.
Toward the end, loss of muscle control and confinement to bed.

32. There is no cure for Alzheimer's.
Biologically, problems with protein production occurs.
The brain shrinks, and several areas of the hippocampus and frontal and temporal lobes deteriorate, certain neurons die, and create a lack of acetylcholine.

33. Genetics clearly play a role
No known triggers are understood to cause Alzheimer's, but it runs in families.
Genetics clearly play a role
High blood pressure & diet may increase susceptibility
Viruses, immune system dysfunction, hormone imbalances being investigated as possible explanations

34. No cure, but symptoms treated…
Several drug treatments appear promising: Tacrine, or Cognex, which are forms of acetylcholine
Only helps about 20 percent.
No drug treatment is totally effective.
Anti-inflammatory drugs promising
Vitamin E and C are currently being investigated as extremely effective at relieving symptoms

35. Because all Alzheimer patients are eventually bedridden, many end their lives in nursing homes
2/3 of those in nursing homes!
~ People who care for Alzheimer’s often become secondary victims
Stress
Overwhelming care demands
~Therapy & support groups often help a great deal!
~See tips for caring for people with Alzheimer’s Disease in your text.

36. Wellness in Late Adulthood
People can do specific things to enhance their physical and psychological well-being and their longevity during old age.
 Eat a proper diet.
16 % to 50 % of the elderly do not have adequate nutrition.
It is difficult to shop and cook for oneself.
Little motivation to eat when living alone.
Taste and smell deteriorate and eating is not as enjoyable

37.  Exercise.
Illness may prevent older people from exercising.
Poor health or nutrition may reduce energy.
Avoid threats to health, such as smoking.

38. A recent study of men aged found that not smoking, keeping weight down, & exercising can reduce disease.
To find your body mass index (BMI, used above), multiply your weight in pounds by 705. Divide the result by your height in inches, then divide by your height again.

39. ~~ Sometimes older people experience unique problems that keep them from following these guidelines…
~~> Getting enough exercise may be problematic
--decreased muscle strength & flexibility
--illness, weather, poor nutrition

40. ~~> 16-50% of the elderly do not have adequate nutrition
~~ Several million go hungry each day
--too poor to buy healthy food
--too sick to shop or cook for themselves
--lower motivation since cooking for one
--declines in earlier taste and smell sensitivity
--lifelong patterns

41. Sexuality in Late Adulthood: Use it or lose it
Increasing evidence suggests that people are sexually active well into their 80s and 90s.
Good physical and mental health are necessary.
Previous sexual activity increases the desire for sex - "Use it or lose it."
2/3 of men and women over age 70 had sex with their spouses on average about once a week.
The percentage of people who view their partner as physically attractive increases with age…

42. More than 50% of Americans over age 45 find their partners attractive, and as time goes on, more attractive.

44. There are potential difficulties related to sexual functioning
It takes men longer to get an erection, and they have a longer refractory period (time following an orgasm during which men are unable to become aroused again)
women's vaginas sometimes become thin and inelastic, and produce less lubrication
~ Despite these physical changes, sexual activity can continue and flourish throughout the lifespan
~ Studies: having sex regularly is associated with a lower risk of death (Purdy, 1995, Davey et al., 1997)

45. Theories of Aging…
There are 2 major approaches to explain why we age.
GENETIC PREPROGRAMMING THEORIES OF AGING suggest that our body's DNA genetic code contains a built-in time limit for the reproduction of human cells.
May be due to fact that genetic material has a "death gene" that is programmed to direct the body to deteriorate and die.
May be that genetic instructions for running the body can be read only a certain number of times before they become illegible

46. WEAR-AND-TEAR THEORIES OF AGING argue that the mechanical functions of the body simply wear out with age.
Some subtheories say that the body's constant manufacture of energy to fuel its activities creates by-products, which eventually reach such high levels that they impair the body's normal functioning.
This is a more optimistic theory, which suggests that longevity can be extended by eliminating the toxins produced by the body.

47. Life Expectancy: How Long Have I Got??
LIFE EXPECTANCY, the average age of death for members of a populations, has been steadily increasing.
In 1776, the average life expectancy was 35.
In 1900, the average life expectancy was 47.
In 1996, the average life expectancy is 74.
By 2050, the average life expectancy is predicted to be 80.

48. Living to Age 100
If life expectancy continues to increase, it may be common for people to live to be 100 by the end of this century. What implications does this have for society?

49. Reasons for increases in life expectancy…
Health conditions are better.
Many diseases are wiped out or better controlled through medicine.
People's working conditions are better.
We are working on improving environmental conditions.

50. The maximum possible human life span is believed to hover around 120.
To extend the maximum life span would probably take genetic alterations.
Figures for life expectancy mask individual gender, race, and ethnic disparities.
The average Caucasian in the U.S. is likely to live 76 years.
The average African-American is likely to live 71 years.
The average Japanese is likely to live 79 years.
The average Gambian is likely to live less than 45 years.

51. A male born in the U.S. is most likely to live 73 years.
A female born in the U.S. is most likely to live 80 years.
 Possible reasons women live longer:
Women's hormones (estrogen and progesterone) protect them from heart attacks.
Women may eat more healthy diets than men.
Women experience less stress in the workforce than men (Do you agree with this? What about gender role strain & the pressure of combining paid and nonpaid work?)

52. ~ Racial disparities may reflect societal & cultural differences…
Better eating habits (Japanese)
Lower socioeconomic well-being (African-Americans).
Food quality
Ability to obtain health care
Time for rest/relaxation/exercise
* In contrast to Caucasians, whose life expectancy keeps edging up, African Americans have actually experienced slight declines in life expectancy in recent years.

53. Life Expectancy of African Americans & European Americans

54. Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood
The idea that older people become less cognitively adept comes from misinterpretations of research evidence
Cross sectional research does not take cohort effects into account (influences attributable to growing up in a particular time period/era).
Longitudinal studies suffer from practice effects and sample attributions

55. Recent research (by Schaie) used cross-sequential methods, which combine cross-sectional and longitudinal methods
Included 500 subjects (aged 20-70)
Tested every 7 years
More subjects added (to total 5,000)
~~ Results show no uniform pattern of adult age-related changes across intellectual abilities!
--Some abilities decline beginning at age 25 (fluid intelligence [ability to deal with new situations])
--Some stay steady or increase (crystallized intelligence [acquired store of information, skills, strategies])

56. Changes in Intellectual Functioning (Schaie, 1994)
Although some intellectual abilities decline across adulthood, others stay steady.

57. There were some individual differences in the patterns of change…
For some, intellectual skills began to decline in the 30’s
Others showed NO decline until the 70’s
1/3 in their 70’s scored higher than the average young adult
--Why?
Certain environmental and cultural factors are related to greater or lesser intellectual decline

58. (environmental and cultural factors related to greater or lesser intellectual decline, continued)
Lesser declines
Good health
Higher SES
Involvement in an intellectually stimulating environment
A flexible personality
Being married to a bright spouse
Feeling satisfied with one’s accomplishments in earlier periods of late adulthood

59. Schaie & Willis taught people whose reasoning and spatial skills had declined a variety of skills. More than ½ showed a significant improvement
This plasticity (modifiability of behavior) suggests that there is nothing fixed about the changes that may occur in intellectual abilities during late adulthood (“use it or lose it”).

60. Memory in Late Adulthood
Cross-cultural memory research shows that in societies where older people are held in high esteem, people are less likely to show memory losses than in societies where they are held in less regard!

61. Memory in Late Adulthood, continued
When memory declines that can be directly attributed to aging do occur, they are limited primarily to episodic memory
Episodic memory relates to specific life experiences
Other types of memory are mostly unaffected by age
Semantic memories (general knowledge & facts)
Implicit memories (memories that people are not consciously aware of)

62. Memory in Late Adulthood, continued
The capacity for new memories does change during late adulthood
Short-term memory declines gradually until age 70, and then becomes more pronounced (less gradual)
Information presented quickly and verbally is forgotten sooner
New information is more difficult to recall, perhaps because it is not processed as efficiently

63. Memory in Late Adulthood, continued
 In late adulthood, people are subject to some of the same principals of recall as younger people
In both groups, autobiographical memory (memories of information about one’s own life) frequently follows the Pollyanna Principal
Pleasant memories are more likely to be recalled than unpleasant memories

64. Memory in Late Adulthood, continued
People in all stages of adulthood also are more likely to recall things that fit with their current self-view
Particular periods of life are remembered more easily than others for adults
70-year olds recall their 20s and 30s best
50-year olds recall their teenage years and 20s best

65. Remembrances of Things Past

66. Explanations of memory changes in late adulthood tend to fall into 3 main categories:
Environmental Factors
~ Certain things that cause declines in memory may be more common among older people…
drugs
retirement
lower motivation in testing situations

67. (3 main categories of memory changes, continued)
2) Information Processing Deficits
Inability to inhibit irrelevant information and thought declines
Difficulty paying attention and organizing info
Processing speed declines
Less efficient memory retrieval

68. (3 main categories of
memory changes in late adulthood, continued)
Biological Factors
Brain and body deterioration
Accelerated frontal lobe deterioration
Continuation of education in late adulthood can improve cognitive skills

69. Classes/programs specially designed for adults
Improving cognitive skills in late adulthood through mental stimulation
Community Centers
Classes/programs specially designed for adults
Free tuition at colleges & Universities
~ Although some elderly people avoid these opportunities because of concerns about their intellectual capabilities, this is not supported by research!
~ Other students & professors value diversity in the classroom: Win/win situation!
~Being around others can help with cognitive functioning!

70. ~Being around others can help with cognitive functioning

71. Don’t forget to keep up with your reading!