1. Media’s impact on public opinion & policy: implications for journalists by: Guy Berger, Rhodes Journalism & Media Studies

2. Public opinion sets the bounds of the possible – especially as regards the shape of policy and the exercise of power. Qtn: how do orthodoxies change – cf. women’s role, privatisation and liberalisation? Qtn: where does media fit in? That’s why understanding media’s impact is important. “ ”

3. Contents: THE ACTORS AND DYNAMICS  5 models of action in media-policy  Other issues in media-policy HOW MEDIA INFLUENCE WORKS  3 theories of media impact CONCLUSION

4. THE ACTORS: the media the public policy people public opinion

5. Specific players: media: different platforms, premier outlets, media stars (Oprah)  public: general public, civil society groups incl NGOs, business, global forces, individuals.  policy people: the makers and the implementers.  Qtn: who drives the process?

6. Five models of how the relationship works: 1.Liberal democratic 2.Muckraker model 3.Bypassing civil society 4.Manipulation model 5.Propaganda picture

7. 1. Liberal democratic model MEDIA COVERAGE PUBLIC + OPINION GOVT RESPONDS i.e. The public is the active source of public opinion eg. Aids activists win coverage, affect govt 1 2 3

8. 2. Muckraker model PUBLIC + OPINION MEDIA COVERAGE GOVT RESPONDS i.e. Media coverage is active source of public opinion eg. Exposure of child abuse 1 2 3

9. 3. Bypassing Civil Society GOVT RESPONDS MEDIA COVERAGE = “PUBLIC OPINION” i.e. Media impacts on govt, irrespectv of real public opinion eg. Bill Clinton-Monica Lewinsky 1 2

10. 4. Manipulation model MEDIA COVERAGE GOVT INITIATES PUBLIC + OPINION i.e. Government is the originator of public opinion eg. Iraq war in US, Info scandal, discredit leader’s rivals 1 2 3

11. 5. Propaganda picture MEDIA COVERAGE i.e. Government is the originator, circuit incomplete eg. media coverage pleases govt, ignores public GOVT INITIATES 1 2

12. Summing up (a): Policy people infer Public Opinion from media, and they use media to promote their policies. Often it is interaction of media & politicians (not the public) that affects govt policy & practice.

13. Summing up (b): But civil society also has a real role to play as in the first model. In practice, many situations combine aspects of all five models. Media is assumed to be a factor in all five

14. Other issues 1: Enthusiastic, one-sided & simplistic treatment in the media = rapid policy change; –Eg. anti-retrovirals Complexity & debate = slower policy action. –Eg. genetically modified crops Effect on politicians & policy is a transition: mobilisation -> action -> maintenance -> fade (as the media intensity declines).

15. Other issues 2: Some media more influential than others: eg. TV greater on dramatic & short-term events. But often TV takes its cue from print. Intermedia agenda-setting power. For example, some titles set “the story” for others. Note: power of international media and cultural imperialism.

16. HOW MEDIA INFLUENCE WORKS

17. The making of “public opinion” What is public “opinion”? Theory 1: indirect effects Theory 2: direct effects Theory 3: deeper effects

18. Defining Public Opinion  Knowledge and information  Beliefs (about reality)  Values (about goodness)  Norms (about behaviour) => attitudes, which in turn => contextualise and colour specific opinions on specific issues. Public Opinion = a set of shared attitudes based on: knowledge, beliefs, values, norms. i.e heart-and-head on an aggregated scale

19. Influence: Theory 1 1.Very Indirect effects (“Tertiary-level effects”):  Media creates new publics, causes changes in politics, alters people’s time allocation.  A “media dense” environment will have greater effect in this area, even on identities  Much less the case in most of Africa.

20. Influence: Theory 2a 2. Most Direct effects (“Primary effects”): Works on short-term attitudes and opinions A. Stimulus-response (S-R) theory: Overly-powerful view. But true that S-R exists in affective responses: fear, tears, identification, anger, laughter, arousal. Suicides, fashions, riots. Less-powerful view: S-R is modified by psycho variables, socio variables, 2 step diffusion.

21. Influence: Theory 2b 2. Most Direct effects (“Primary effects”) cntd: B. Uses & gratifications theory: Audiences act on media; they make the effects. But:  People do change through media exposure,  Messages are not open-ended,  There are unobvious effects (= consumerism),  Reinforcement, rather than change, effect. Still: U&G valid ‘cos audiences not purely passive

22. Influence: Theory 3 3. Direct, but deeper, effects or influence (“Secondary effects”): Works on beliefs, values, norms, worldviews (foundation of attitudes & opinions) More longterm, & relatively powerful:  Agenda-setting effects  Paradigmatic effects.

23. Influence: Theory 3a 3. Direct, but deeper, effects or influence (“Secondary effects”): A. Agenda-setting effects:  Defines what is NB.  Affects not what you think, but what you think about.  Plays to advantage of specific forces.

24. Influence: Theory 3b 3. Direct, but deeper, effects or influence (“Secondary effects”): B. Paradigmatic effects:  How you think about the agenda:  i.e. “framing” what has been “primed”.  This effect defines reality & norms.  Defines what is wise, normal, praiseworthy, acceptable, right. And what is:  deviant, disgusting, outdated, unacceptable.

25. Influence: summing up What theories we’ve covered:  Stimulus-response effects  Modified S-R  Uses and gratifications  Agenda-setting  Paradigms There is value in all of them. Media impacts on public opinion and policy in all these ways

26. CONCLUSION Audience role and “decoding” Public Opinion – fact or fiction? Summing up impact

27. Audience role Media effects are subject to receiver decoding: (a)hegemonic, (b) negotiated, (c) oppositional a. “Hegemonic decoding”: Reinforcing influence operates at 2ndary level. You accept the media’s agenda, the paradigm & the attitude-opinion effects.

28. Audience role cntd b. “Negotiated decoding”: You accept the paradigm, maybe even agenda, you stop at the attitudinal stuff. Question: Why? Ans: Situated & Mediated meaning levels c. “Oppositional decoding”: a “weak effects” approach. Implies a resistance orientation.

29. Public opinion: fact or fiction? Very notion itself of Public Opinion can be argued to be an effect of media coverage. A construct that masks real power – that of media, their owners and their sources (such as govt or PR companies). Self-fulfilling: policy people – who influence so much media coverage – gain their own understanding of Public Opinion from the self- same media.

30. Policy impact: But even fictions have impacts:  Affect the circuit of policy making, via media & bypassing media, and upon media (affecting its interests & operations).  Influence the decoding by audiences: the setting of media agendas and framing  Influence audience decoding via effect on knowledge, attitudes, and practices.

31. Summing up Media, public, policy people = a dynamic & powerful triangle! that is sometimes not a triangle! and that works at diff levels, issues, times!

32. Understanding Journalists need to grasp the complexities and the nuances about actors, PO, influence. In this way, strategise & heighten our impact The continent needs optimum relationships. Think about it. Act upon it. Be a conscious player in public opinion