1. Norms, Rules, Rights, Society and Culture

2. This Week… What is equality? ▫What does it mean, practically? What is an identity How are identities discriminated against? Social construction in race, ethnicity and gender

3. Equality in the State and in Politics States often identify watershed moments ▫Election of minorities to positions of powers in states like the US (Obama), Brazil (Rousseff), Argentina (Fernandez), Bolivia (Evo) But what does this actually mean? ▫What problems are ultimately solved? ▫Glass ceilings, sure, but what about real societal change?

4. Review Identity: ▫“The social label ascribed to an individual or group that locates the individual in political society more broadly.” Identities often have boundaries ▫Us vs Them ▫These boundaries are often socially constructed ▫Can often be based on visual differences

5. Important Boundaries of Identity Ethnic or Racial boundaries: ▫World is full of different groups ▫Biological differences, or cultural differences, different traditions ▫Very often associated with discrimination ▫Depending on the nature of difference, boundaries can be permeable ▫These can be further entrenched in law (Jim Crow Laws; Alien Races law)

6. Important Boundaries of Identity 2 Gender (not sex, which is biologically defined) ▫Primarily a social construction ▫Also, not a binary  Trans, questioning, two spirited, non- binary/genderqueer ▫A concept that evolves over time (basically disproving biological determinism)  If evolution can happen, revolution can too  Open to activists seeking faster or radical change

7. Important Boundaries of Identity 3 Sexual orientation: ▫Discrimination remains here ▫Hetero-normativity remains the primary lens through which the world is seen, as such “others” may be (and are) discriminated against ▫Broad range of issues here  At the extreme, remains (or has recently been made) illegal in numerous countries  On the other hand, social movements have successfully increased rights

8. Race as a Social Construction Biologically, there is virtually no differences between people that have traditionally been identified as of a different race ▫Irish as non-white Racialization: Historical process which led to groups being defined as one race or another ▫Differences between races in the US changed significantly with the economy Consequently, race is a social construction, differences are imagined ▫Raises important questions about why these racial identities emerged, who they benefited and why they were created

9. Ethnicity as Social Construction Ethnicity: Cultural commonality among a group ▫Broader conception than race ▫Not bound to state  African Americans or Mexican Americans don’t seek their own state ▫Primarily cultural  Cultural traditions, rituals, practices ▫Some debate over whether this could serve to minimize concerns over the racialization of certain groups

10. More on Ethnicity Scholars sometimes view ethnicity as different depending on different societies (as such, they may treat different castes as having their own ethnic identity – a largely different experience than being African-, or Asian-American Melting pots, multicultural states and ethnicity ▫Emergence of hyphenated identities in many Western states

11. Discrimination Based on Race and Ethnicity Overt racism has lessened dramatically throughout much of the west ▫Implicit racism, though, appears rampant still ▫Studies suggest (in the US) people that have stereotypically Caucasian names are more likely to get job interviews, all other things being equal ▫Not just an American problem ▫Affirmative Action ▫Differences across states

12. Discrimination Based on Gender Most countries have laws making gender discrimination illegal ▫May have impact on overt discrimination, but still plenty of implicit discrimination, even in relatively equal countries ▫Job discrimination ▫Sexual harassment ▫Pay equity

13. Gender Discrimination Cont… Cultural pressures on “roles” of women ▫Role in the family (pay) ▫Anticipatory discrimination (promotion) ▫Stereotyping ▫Gendered labour and job market In some states, males get more of the resources, human and financial capital ▫Post-secondary attainment ▫Scandanavia

14. Empowering Groups in Society What is empowerment? An increase in social, political or economic capabilities of an individual or group. ▫Books description as opposite of discrimination isn’t exactly accurate Sometimes empowerment goes beyond equality ▫Differential rights to begin the process of long-term unfairness ▫Can be in any number of spheres, including economic or cultural

15. Empowerment Cont… Empowerment does not have to be given, but can also be taken – often symbolically ▫Collective action in fighting for rights ▫Actively seeking elected representatives ▫Promoting positive discussion of the group in discourse/media  May be symbolic, but often comes before more concrete economic or political empowerment Political empowerment is both the election of representatives from these groups, but also legal recognition and recourses against discrimination

16. Mobilizing Social Movements Social movements need organization ▫Political parties are often a straight-forward mechanism from which to create leadership ▫Institutionalizes concerns of the group Social movements can focus on group conceptualization ▫Changing society’s attitudes can result in much faster change than getting people elected

17. Political Parties and Ethnicity Political parties are an important component in changing attitudes ▫Significant institution in democracies ▫Often only legitimate entry into politics Why might ethnic parties emerge? ▫Heterogeneous society ▫How strong is identification with ethnicity ▫How open is the political system ▫Are there historical tensions between groups Why might they not ▫Other cleavages are more important (class)

18. Equality and Institutional Design Winning elections is one thing, but certainly not permanent ▫Designing systems to assure representation Quotas ▫Reserved seats (common in Latin America)  May meet with strong opposition ▫Candidate quotas (NDP in Canada)  No guarantees ▫Constitutional quotas